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iWaterialsi  anb  ^ctibittesi  in  Science 


BY 

MORRIS  ^MEISTER 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the  Degree 

of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy, 

Columbia  University. 


NEW  YORK 

1921 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/educationalvalueOOmeisrich 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE 

of 
CERTAIN  AFTER-SCHOOL  MATERIALS 

and 

ACTIVITIES  IN  SQENCE 


BT 

MORRIS  MEISTER 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the  'Degree 

of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of  ^Philosophy, 

Columbia  University, 


NEW  YORK 

/p2J 


«KCHANQC 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


TT  is  with  a  feeling  of  great  gratitude  that  the  author  wishes  to  thank 
his  instructors  and  associates  at  Teachers  College  for  the  inspiration 
and  guidance  which  he  has  received  from  them.  To  Professor  John  F, 
IVoodhull  he  owes  the  discovery  of  a  life-interest.  To  Professors  Thomas 
H.  Griggs,  Otis  W.  Caldwell  and  IVilliam  H.  Kilpatrick  he  is  indebted  for 
invaluable  aid  in  gathering  and  organizing  the  material  of  this  study.  For 
much  of  the  data  and  experimental  equipment,  the  author  owes  thanks  to 
^r.  A.  C.  Gilbert  of  the  A.  C  Gilbert  Co.,  Mr.  J.  P.  Porteus  of  the  Mec. 
cano  Co.,  and  to  Mr.  H.  M.  Porter  of  the  Porter  Chemical  Co.  In  the 
experimental  phases  of  the  study  the  author  could  never  have  done  with- 
out the  cooperation  of  'Principal  Henry  C.  Pearson  of  the  Horace  Mann 
School  and  'Principal  Joseph  K.  ^anDenburgh  of  the  Speyer  Junior  High 
School.  To  SMr.  Fred.  F.  Good,  the  author  wishes  to  express  thanks  for 
his  patience  and  for  his  many  valuable  suggestions. 

But  above  all  the  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  great  interest 
and  devotion  of  <SMiss  Florence  Glickstein  whose  intelligence  and  self-sacrifice 
made  possible  the  bringing  of  the  work  to  a  successful  close. 


M 


452303 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Tage 

I  Introduction              -             .             -             -  -                  1 

II  The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described  -           8 

III  Educational  Propaganda  of  the  Manufacturers  -  63 

IV  Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Materials  in  Science  -         78 
V  Analysis  of  the  Problem        -             -             -    _  -                98 

VI  The  Procedure  Used       -             -             -             ■  .107 

VII  Experimental  Results  and  Data          -              •  -              129 

VIII  Conclusions  and  Discussions        -             -              -  -       141 

IX  The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  -              153 

X  Summary  of  the  Important  Features  and 

Findings  of  the  Study  -       172 


CHAPTER  I 


INTRODUCTION 

Educational  thought  and  investigation  of  the  last  ten  or  fifteen 
years  have  been  focusing  the  attention  of  teachers,  supervisors, 
educators,  and  the  thinking  public  upon  certain  educative  forces 
that  exist  quite  apart  from  the  activities  of  the  schoolroom.  These 
forces  are  sometimes  so  vital  and  so  important  in  shaping  the 
life  of  the  individual  that  the  failure  of  the  educational  system 
properly  to  guide  and  control  them  has  brought  upon  it  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  criticism  of  recent  years.  Developments  in 
educational  philosophy  and  psychology  have  been  very  emphatic 
in  pointing  out  that  what  our  pupils  do  during  every  hour  of  the 
twenty-four  in  the  day — and  of  every  day  in  the  year — is  a  factor 
making  for  education  and  therefore  a  legitimate  consideration  for 
the  school  and  teacher.  Thus,  we  have  begun  to  investigate  such 
questions  as  home-study,  play,  and  nutrition.  We  have  gone  into 
the  home  and  made  recommendations  to  parents  in  matters  which 
have  hitherto  been  looked  upon  as  belonging  only  to  mother  and 
father.  We  have  begun  to  lay  stress  upon  student  organizations 
of  all  sorts ;  seeking  in  them  value  in  citizenship  and  habit  for- 
mation. Clubcraft,  scoutcraft,  and  camping  have  become  perti- 
nent considerations  for  the  educator  and,  what  is  more  important, 
for  the  teacher  in  the  class  room.  And,  as  might  be  expected, 
this  newer  element  has  had  its  influence  upon  our  schools,  their 
organizations,  curricula,  courses  of  study,  and  methods  of  instruc- 
tion. The  concept  that  the  school  is  not  a  place  where  we  pre- 
pare for  a  Hfe  that  is  to  come,  but  is  an  integral  part  of  life  itself, 
must  necessarily  and  in  a  very  intimate  way  relate  school  proce- 
dures with  the  vital  factors  of  life. 

In  a  sense,  we  are  preparing  our  pupils  for  a  future  life  in  the 
most  effective  way  when  we  teach  them  to  live  better  their  pres- 
ent lives.  From  considerations  such  as  these,  extra-curricular 
activities  have  been  deriving  greater  and  greater  importance. 
Eventually  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  phases  of 


2  After-ScHool  Material  in  Science 

activity  should  fade  completely.  The  school  day  may  start  at  9 
and  end  at  3 ;  but  its  influence  will  function  at  all  times.  And  in 
turn,  methods  of  work,  content,  and  organization  within  the  four 
walls  of  the  school-room  should  take  their  quality  and  their  inspi- 
ration from  the  well-springs  of  enthusiasm  so  common  to  after- 
school  activity. 

Needless  to  say,  we  are  as  yet  far  from  so  ideal  a  development. 
To  the  pupil,  out-of-school  time  has  always  been  and  still  is  the 
period  of  freedom  par  excellence.  We  have  perhaps  progressed 
beyond  the  point  where  he  thinks  of  the  school-room  as  an  abode 
of  horrors,  of  the  teacher  as  an  ogre,  and  of  books  as  instru- 
ments of  torture;  but  too  often  his  real  life  is  still  essentially 
distinct  from  the  school.  His  greatest  activity  and  his  greatest 
enthusiasm  still  center  around  the  extra-curricular  where  are  to 
be  found  problems  of  his  own  choosing  and  ideas  born  of  his 
own  inner  urgings. 

As  for  the  teacher,  he  has  been  reacting  to  the  extra-curricular 
in  many  different  ways.  When  seized  by  the  immensity  of  some 
teaching  difficulty,  he  may  storm  at  the  "distracting  influences" 
which  take  "their  minds  off  their  subjects,"  or  he  may  feel  envi- 
ous of  these  rivals  to  his  efforts,  or  he  may  welcome  them  as 
offering  a  "whip"  with  which  to  lash  pupils  into  submission — 
by  laying  punitive  restrictions  upon  their  after-school  time.  Or, 
he  may  throw  care  to  the  winds,  and  enter  whole-heartedly  into 
the  extra-curricular  plans  of  his  boys.  If  he  is  one  who  reacts  in 
this  last  way,  he  almost  always  attains  a  popularity  and  a  sphere 
of  influence  that  make  teaching  a  joy. 

The  parent  is  perhaps  the  only  one  who  is  in  a  position  fully 
to  appreciate  the  extra-curricular.  Most  of  his  problems  as  a 
parent,  a  good  deal  of  his  worry,  a  goodly  portion  of  the  cost  of 
child  support,  and  nearly  all  of  his  pleasure  with  his  children  are 
tied  up  with  the  extra-curricular.  If  he  be  the  unintelligent 
parent,  he  welcomes  such  a  procedure  as  will  relieve  him  of  his 
problems.  Time  spent  in  school  is  so  much  less  time  for  his  boy 
to  get  into  mischief.  If  he  be  the  thinking  parent,  he  will  make 
the  effort  himself  to  reconcile  for  the  boy  the  two  distinct  claims 
upon  the  latter's  time.  Both  types  of  parents  are  ready  to 
cooperate  and  to  accept  recommendations  looking  to  a  better 
state  of  affairs. 


Introduction  3 

And  society  is  filled  with  individuals  who  look  back  upon  these 
two  phases  of  their  past  lives  with  two  quite  distinct  attitudes: 
with  censure,  criticism,  and  unpleasantness  for  the  one;  and  with 
glowing  recollections  of  time  profitably  spent  for  the  other.  It 
is  a  very  wide-spread  reflection  upon  American  college  education 
that  it  is  essentially  an  extra-curricular  training.  In  some  col- 
leges it  is  frequently  a  matter  of  disrepute  to  have  devoted  much 
time  to  studies.  The  same  condition  holds  for  the  high  school 
and  in  a  different  sense  even  for  the  elementary  school.  The 
man  of  sixty  who  reviews  his  life  and  concludes  that  his  real 
education  was  what  he  got  while  in  contact  with  the  world  of 
actual  experience  is  often  paralleled  by  the  high  school  or  college 
student  who  regards  as  his  real  schooling  his  experiences  of  out- 
of-school  life.  "He  has  nine  months  in  which  to  get  his  schooling 
and  three  months  in  which  to  gain  an  education." 

From  every  point  of  view  possible,  extra-curricular  activities 
loom  up  as  immense  factors  of  educational  importance.  In  the 
field  of  science  there  has  always  existed  a  body  of  materials  and 
experiences  that  were  essentially  tied  up  with  life  out  of  school. 
Before  the  great  industrial  changes  which  brought  to  civilization 
the  "factory,"  and  which  herded  our  masses  into  congested  cities, 
the  home  was  a  center  of  industrial,  social,  and  intellectual  activ- 
ity. In  this  activity  were  found  a  stimulus  and  an  opportunity 
for  experiences  of  a  physical,  mechanical,  and  manipulatory 
nature.  This  stimulus  existing  quite  apart  from  the  systematic 
education  of  sixty  or  seventy  years  ago,  nevertheless  made  one 
cf  the  largest  contributions  to  the  intellectual  development  of  the 
individual  of  that  day.  As  modern  industrialism  continued  in  its 
growth,  the  home  ceased  to  function  in  the  old  sense.  Education 
became  more  and  more  "curricular"  and  systematic,  "squeezing 
the  educational  juice"  out  of  the  home. 

Charles  W.  Eliot  in  his  paper  on  ".Changes  Needed  in  Ameri- 
can Secondary  Education,"  comments  upon  this  situation  as 
follows : 

"If  any  one  should  ask — why  has  modern  society  got  on  as  well  as  it 
has,  if  the  great  majority  of  its  members  have  had  an  inadequate  training  of 
that  sort,  the  answer  is  that  some  voluntary  agencies  and  some  influences 
which  take"  strong  effect  on  sections  of  the  community  have  been  at  work 
to  mitigate  the  evil.  Such  are,  for  example,  athletic  sports,  travel,  the 
use  by  city  people  of  public  parks  and  gardens,  the  practice  of  that  alert 


4  After-School  Material  in  Science 

watchfulness  which  the  risk  of  crowded  thoroughfares  and  of  the  dan- 
gerous industries  compel,  and  the  training  of  the  senses  which  any  man 
who  practices  well  a  manual  trade  obtains  on  the  way  .  .  .  The  problem 
now  is  how  to  make  systematic  secondary  education  support  and  better 
these  incidental  influences,  and  how  to  co-ordinate  sense-training  with 
accurate  reasoning  and  retentive  memorizing." 

Clearly  Dr.  Eliot  recognizes  certain  extra-curricular  forces 
which  are  supplying  a  need  not  met  by  the  schools.  In  the  last 
ten  or  fifteen  years  another  of  these  forces  has  come  into  exist- 
ence, to  make  up  for  the  lack  of  manipulatory,  sense-experiences 
that  have  followed  the  decadence  of  the  home.  A  mass  of  science 
play  materials  has  invaded  the  apartment  house.  The  boy  spends 
large  portions  of  his  time  on  them ;  and  the  parent  often  stints 
himself  in  order  that  his  boy  may  have  them.  In  the  matter  of 
time  expended,  effort  exerted,  interest  aroused,  and  thought  pro- 
voked, these  materials  and  activities  compare  most  favorably 
with  the  subject  matter  and  activities  of  the  same  boys  in  school. 

In  addition  to  being  socially  important  and  of  vital  interest  to 
the  boy,  these  materials  present  problems  to  the  parent  and  to  the 
science  teacher.  In  the  case  of  the  former,  there  are  matters 
such  as  safety  of  the  boy,  safety  to  the  household  furnishings, 
and  interference  with  the  comfort  and  rights  of  other  members 
of  the  family,  that  are  to  be  carefully  considered.  Then,  too, 
which  are  the  best  things  to  buy  among  the  countless  articles 
offered  for  sale  as  "educational  toys?"  Are  the  expensive  toys 
more  valuable  educationally?  Are  they  really  educational?  May 
they  not  over-stimulate?  How  often  should  new  materials  be 
bought?  What  are  the  most  efficient  arrangements  for  the  boy's 
play  room  or  shop?  What  tools  shall  he  have?  There  are  many 
other  questions  which  the  writer  has  been  called  upon  to  answer 
by  parents  of  his  boy  pupils. 

The  science  teacher  too  is  affected  by  this  activity  which  goes 
on  outside  of  his  class  room.  Sometimes  he  uses  it  for  his  illus- 
trations, sometimes  he  makes  use  of  the  apparatus,  sometimes  he 
cautions  against  certain  projects,  and  sometimes  he  opposes  the 
activity  and  rules  against  its  worthwhileness.  Though  it  must  be 
pointed  out  that  this  study  does  not  attempt  to  treat  or  solve 
problems  in  the  teaching  of  science,  it  is  hoped  that  any  conclu- 
sions which  are  arrived  at  will  throw  light  upon  these  curricular 
problems.    These  out-of-school  materials  affect  the  science  teach- 


Introduction  5 

er's  problems  in  two  ways.  They  cause  a  change  in  the  reaction 
that  boys  will  make  to  the  teacher's  materials ;  and  thereby  tend 
to  change  his  content,  organization,  and  methods.  Two  instances 
of  such  tendencies  may  be  briefly  discussed  with  profit. 

There  is  no  greater  problem  for  framers  of  courses  of  study 
than  the  proper  selection  of  content.  Even  when  basic  principles 
have  been  agreed  upon,  the  task  of  choosing  the  details  that  are 
to  be  taught  is  fraught  with  argument  and  indecision.  Two  con- 
tending principles  are  in  most  cases  the  cause  for  this  difficulty. 
On  the  one  hand  we  have  the  school  of  thought  which  lays  maxi- 
mum stress  upon  the  items  of  ''racial  experience"  that  are  proved 
and  of  long  standing,  irrespective  of  likes  or  dislikes  of  the 
pupils.  'This  is  good  for  them !"  On  the  other  hand  we  have 
the  group  of  educators  who  lay  maximum  stress  upon  the  inter- 
est of  the  child  as  the  starting  point,  and  will  include  or  exclude 
each  item  in  the  course  of  study  according  as  it  meets  or  does 
not  meet  the  criterion  of  interest.  A  proper  compromise  between 
these  two  points  of  view  has  been  proposed  by  Dr.  Kilpatrick  in 
which  a  weighting  of  three  factors  can  be  used  as  the  criterion: 
the  frequency  with  which  an  item  occurs  in  actual  life,  its  signifi- 
cance when  it  does  occur,  and  the  cost  of  instruction.  But  which- 
ever criterion  is  used,  our  extra-curricular  activities,  in  offering 
the  most  effective  selection  of  content  on  the  basis  of  genuine 
ii  terest,  perform  a  service  for  framers  of  courses  of  study  which 
is  surely  of  great  value. 

Another  immediate  significance  that  these  play  materials  have 
for  curricular  work  is  in  connection  with  laboratory  procedure. 
There  is  a  growing  dissatisfaction  with  our  meaningless  bits  of 
high  school  apparatus,  the  very  quantitative  procedure  of  measur- 
ing useless  objects  for  the  sake  of  developing  habits  of  accuracy 
and  the  great  stress  upon  performing  experiments  from  rigidly 
designed  manuals  which  destroy  the  last  bit  of  initiative  in  the 
pupils.  The  dissatisfaction  is  not  at  all  with  quantitative  pro- 
cedures or  with  high  ideals  of  accuracy  of  measurement,  but  with 
the  attempt  to  force  these  things  upon  pupils  of  an  age  and  train- 
ing which  make  impossible  a  proper  appreciation.  Here  again 
extra-curricular  activities  offer  some  valuable  suggestions  by  pre- 
senting a  type  of  experimenting  which  possesses  more  character- 
istics in  common  with  the  activities  of  great  scientists  (whatever 


6  After-School  Material  in  Science 

else  they  possess)  than  do  our  present-day  laboratory  courses  in 
the  high  school. 

However,  solution  to  curricular  problems  will  not  be  the  imme- 
diate concern  of  this  study.  It  will  be  quite  sufficient  if  prin- 
ciples and  conclusions  evolving  from  this  investigation  will  make 
for  a  better  development  of  the  mass  of  materials  that  is  daily 
irxreasing  its  sphere  of  influence.  At  the  present  time,  stress  of 
business  competition  is  evolving  a  science  toy  which  has  value  in 
terms  of  "number  of  sales."  It  is  true  that  in  the  long  run  manu- 
facturers of  these  toys  and  also  science-motion-picture  producers, 
popular  science  magazine  editors,  etc.,  will,  in  their  struggle  for 
existence,  evolve  a  type  of  product  which  will  '"survive."  But 
can  educators  accept  as  the  sole  criterion  of  survival  the  "number 
of  sales"?  Ought  not  education  to  make  this  development  of 
after-school  materials  less  feverish,  less  hit-or-miss,  and  more 
definitely  directed  toward  a  worthy  goal  ?  That,  in  a  word,  is  the 
primary  aim  of  this  investigation.  Assuming  that  business  com- 
petition as  it  exists  today  is  not  conducive  to  altruistic  aims,  and 
that  we  ought  not  to  wait  upon  the  slow  process  of  evolution,  the 
writer  attempts  to  analyze  the  problem  that  these  activities  raise 
and  establish  certain  principles  and  criteria.  From  these  criteria 
an  evaluation  will  be  attempted  in  terms  of  objective  measure- 
ment.* 

As  for  a  literature  of  the  subject,  almost  nothing  has  been 
found  that  deals  with  a  problem  that  is  even  remotely  akin  to 
this.  Of  course,  there  has  been  a  flood  of  extra-curricular  liter- 
ature in  the  past  few  years,  all  of  which  might  be  used  in  sub- 
stantiation of  the  point  that  these  activities  are  significant  and 
important,  but  not  to  throw  light  on  the  educational  values  of  the 
specific  activities  that  are  the  concern  of  this  study.  Then,  too, 
and  in  a  general  way,  what  has  been  written  on  such  questions  as 
play,  interest  and  effort,  self-activity,  purposeful  activity,  con- 
crete vs.  abstract,  practical  vs.  cultural,  play  vs.  work,  etc.,  is  all 


*It  might  be  in  place  here  to  state  that  the  leading  manufacturers  of 
science  toys  have  all  shown  a  keen  interest  in  this  aim.  They  have  de- 
voted days  of  their  busy  week  to  conferences  with  the  writer.  They  have 
very  generously  given  of  their  materials  for  purposes  of  study  and  have 
put  their  office  staffs  at  the  writer's  disposal.  More  important  still  they 
are  ready  to  accept  some  of  the  findings  of  this  investigation. 


Introduction  7 

pertinent  to  this  problem.  But  to  my  knowledge  there  has  been 
a  total  lack  of  experimentation  or  investigation  in  this  particular 
field.*  Here  and  there  in  some  current  magazine,  we  read  of 
some  teacher's  experience  with  "science  clubs,"  or  of  some  teacher 
of  science  whose  hobby  it  has  been  to  teach  science  by  means  of 
toys.  The  important  experiences  of  this  sort  and  their  contribu- 
tions to  the  general  problem  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  course  of 
this  paper. 


*In  the  last  few  months  the  Mother's  Magazine  has  been  reporting  regu- 
larly on  a  series  of  experiments  with  educational  toys  in  a  public  school 
of  Chicago.  The  aims,  methods,  and  organization  of  the  experiment  are 
all  very  vague.  Each  month  the  editor  gets  back  a  number  of  reports 
from  teachers  as  to  how  children  have  reacted,  and  these  are  printed 
as  informational  material  for  mothers. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  MATERIALS  AND  ACTIVITIES  LISTED  AND 
DESCRIBED 

The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  set  down  and  describe  the  materi- 
als and  activities  which  are  the  basis  of  this  study.     The  writer 
recognizes  four  large  types  of  such  materials  and  activities. 
I.  Toys 

(a)  Sets  and  Outfits 

(b)  Specific  Toys 
II.  Reading  Materials 

III.  Educational  Agencies  Involving  Science  Materials 

IV.  The  Science  Club 

I.   (a)  The  Toy  Outfits 

These  outfits,  of  which  there  are  at  least  forty  different  makes 
and  types  sold  to  the  American  boy,  group  themselves  roughly 
into  Mechanical,  Electrical,  and  Chemical  Sets,  and  Sets  for  Spe- 
cial Purposes. 

Of  the  Mechanical  Sets  three  are  worthy  of  mention :  the 
Meccano,  the  Erector,  and  the  Structo.  The  original  toy  of 
this  type  was  the  Meccano,  first  introduced  in  England  in  1902 
and  later  in  most  civilized  countries  of  the  world.  The  remark- 
able success  of  the  toy  everywhere — as  a  commercial  venture — 
brought  into  the  toy  market  in  but  a  very  short  time  as  many  as 
thirty  or  forty  imitations.  Fortunately  or  unfortunately  these 
imitations  were  declared  by  the  courts  to  be  infringements  of 
patent  rights ;  so  that  our  present  product  has  evolved  from  the 
experimentation  of  but  one  company.  The  Erector,  an  American 
innovation,  is  sufficiently  different  from  the  Meccano  to  have 
withstood  legal  attack;  but  the  Structo,  after  several  years  of 
active  effort  in  the  field,  has  been  compelled  by  the  courts  to 
withdraw  as  competitors  of  Meccano  and  Erector. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  Meccano  is  typical  of  a 
great  many  of  these  outfits,  and  is  significant  educationally.  The 
inventor  is  Frank  Hornby  of  England.  Bom  at  a  time  when  the 
possibilities  of  scientific   inventions   were  beginning  to  grip  the 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described  9 

minds  of  men,  he  spent  his  youth  and  early  manhood  in  dreaming 
of  inventions  and  mechanical  contrivances  to  do  new  and  won- 
derful things.  Practically  all  of  his  efforts  in  that  direction  were 
complete  failures,  but  he  carried  with  him  into  manhood  an 
appreciation  for  this  great  longing  of  the  normal  boy  to  manipu- 
late, to  experiment,  to  "make  things  go ;"  so  that  when  his  own 
two  boys  arrived,  it  was  with  keen  understanding  that  he  under- 
took to  satisfy  their  craving  to  do  things. 

The  derrick  has  always  proved  a  particularly  fascinating  object 
for  boys.  Hornby  conceived  the  idea  of  constructing  a  derrick 
that  would  actually  lift  things,  and  which  could  be  dismantled 
and  its  parts  used  for  other  purposes  when  the  boys  got  tired  of 
the  derrick.  The  first  project  worked  out  to  the  satisfaction  of 
his  two  boys;  it  was  but  a  simple  step  to  build  with  the  same 
parts  other  objects  of  interest.  Gradually  the  parts  were  stand- 
ardized and  perfected  so  as  to  be  as  interchangeable  as  possible. 
The  ingenuity  of  his  boys  and  his  own  ability  to  play  as  a  boy 
soon  developed  an  imposing  array  of  different  models — all  built 
out  of  strips  of  steel,  accurately  and  uniformly  perforated,  fast- 
ened by  miniature  brass  nuts  and  bolts,  and  operated  by  real 
gears,  belts,  and  pulleys. 

Dr.  Hele-Shaw,  professor  of  engineering  at  University  Col- 
lege, Liverpool,  recognized  the  educational  value  of  Hornby's 
toy  and  assisted  the  latter  in  launching  the  venture  commercially. 
A  good  many  of  the  original  investors  in  the  scheme  were  men 
and  women  who  were  inspired  by  the  Froebel  doctrine  and  the 
writings  of  Horace  Mann,  and  who  believed  with  Herbert  Spen- 
cer that  "Invariably  children  show  a  strong  tendency  to  make, 
to  build;  a  propensity  which,  if  duly  directed,  will  not  only  pre- 
pare the  way  for  scientific  conceptions,  but  will  develop  these 
powers  of  manipulation  in  which  most  people  are  so  deficient." 

Thus  it  is  important  to  note  that  Meccano  had  its  origin  in 
educational  ideals.  But  as  with  hundreds  of  other  attempts  to 
make  money  out  of  education,  there  soon  arose  difficulties. 
Hornby's  toy  was  sold  under  the  title,  "Hornby's  System  of 
Mechanical  Demonstration,"  in  which  he  endeavored  to  provide 
"an  economical  and  yet  very  effective  series  of  apparatus  for 
demonstrating  the  main  elementary  fundamentals  of  mechanics 
and  mechanical  science."     To  quote   further  from  his  avowed 


10  After-School  Material  in  Science 

purposes,  "The  scheme  is  intended  to  cover  the  requirements  of 
the  ordinary  elementary  schools;  though  it  is  by  no  means  lim- 
ited to  such  an  application.  The  present  models  used  in  the 
teaching  of  mechanical  science  are  very  costly.  In  such  models 
one  piece  of  apparatus  is  employed  to  teach  a  given  lesson,  and 
that  one  only;  the  consequence  being  that  to  cover  anything  like 
a  proper  ground,  the  cost  of  the  apparatus  required  is  very 
heavy.  .  .  .  Experimental  models  constructed  from  'Hornby* 
System  parts  will  be  found  to  be  of  quite  as  high  a  degree  of 
accuracy  as  apparatus  costing  many  times  as  much. 
Every  care  has  been  taken  in  designing  these  models  to  make 
each  one  both  simple  in  construction  and  effective  as  a  demon- 
stration of  some  important  principle.  .  .  .  We  need  hardly 
say  that  suggestions  from  teachers  will  be  welcomed  by  us,  and 
are  invited.  .  .  .  We  have  introduced  three  separate  outfits 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  three  higher  standards  of  ele- 
n^entary  day  schools.  'A'  section  relates  mainly  to  constructional 
work,  and  is  designed  to  bring  out  such  ideas  as  bracing,  girder 
construction,  the  building  up  of  roof-trusses,  the  joining  of  plates 
and  so  on.  *B'  section  embodies  a  series  of  movable  parts  in 
engines,  whilst  'C  section  is  designed  to  afford  scope  for  the 
teaching  of  the  elementary  laws  of  mechanics." 

And  so  Hornby  begins  his  "Manual  of  Instructions"  with  a 
series  of  simple  elements.  He  has  the  boy  make  a  "diagonal  tie 
bar  for  a  frame ;"  and  when  he  can  do  that  well,  he  allows  him 
to  apply  the  "frame"  to  a  "swinging  gate." 

He  has  him  make  an  "angle  bracket;"  and  when  he  has  per- 
fected himself  in  that  exercise  he  can  then  apply  it  to  a  "simple 
roof-truss"  and  a  "girder."  Then  the  boy  makes  a  "rectangular 
angle  iron  framing,"  after  which  he  applies  it  to  another  unit 
which  "might  be  a  braced  tower."  Following  this,  the  boy  is 
asked  to  perfect  himself  in  making  a  "trestle,"  an  "H-girder," 
"joining  plates  at  right  angles,"  making  a  "butt  joint  with  a  Tee 
Iron,"  and  making  a  "lap  joint  of  plates."  This  completes  Sec- 
tion A. 

In  Section  B,  Hornby  assumes  an  ability  on  the  part  of  the  boy 
to  manipulate  all  of  the  above  units,  and  asks  him  to  construct  a 
series  of  mechanical  devices  which  involve  to  some  extent  the 
units  of  Section  A.    Some  of  these  devices  are  rather  complicated 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described        11 

and  difficult  to  construct.  There  are  in  all  nine  such  models. 
The  pantograph,  the  open  and  crossed  belt  drives,  the  crank  and 
connecting  rod,  tracing  a  locus,  quick-return  motion,  a  beam- 
engine,  a  centrifugal,  governor,  a  universal  crosshead,  and  a 
Hookes'  Coupling.  His  dominant  idea  seems  to  be  to  teach  the 
boy  certain  important  mechanical  actions,  so  that  when  he  meets 
with  these  actions  in  actual  engines  he  will  appreciate  and  under- 
stand them. 

In  Section  C  he  points  out  to  the  teacher  the  applicability  of 
Meccano  parts  to  the  traditional  type  of  physics  experiment.  He 
very  ingeniously  illustrates  different  types  of  pulley  arrangements, 
block  and  tackle  arrangements,  the  wheel  and  axle,  a  train  of 
gears,  a  worm  gear,  the  lever,  the  bell  crank,  the  triangle  of 
forces,  the  forces  acting  in  a  crane,  in  a  roof-truss  and  in  a  cross 
head,  and  the  inclined  plane. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  at  great  length  on  the  merits  of  the 
"Hornby  System."  The  greatest  criticism  and  the  most  severe 
that  Hornby  could  have  received  came  from  the  boys  of  Eng- 
land. They  wouldn't  play  with  his  toy.  It  wasn't  a  toy.  He  so 
completely  bound  up  their  inner  urgings  with  his  rigid  proce- 
dure, he  left  so  little  for  them  to  do,  he  took  away  from  them 
so  completely  the  possibility  to  experiment,  that  Meccano  lost 
its  appeal.  It  took  Hornby  about  five  years  to  realize  that  in  his 
anxiety  to  prove  that  his  device  was  "educational"  he  had  robbed 
it  of  the  spirit  which  had  given  him  the  original  inspiration.  In 
the  parlance  of  our  men  of  business,  the  Hornby  System  did  not 
"pan  out."  It  didn't  attract.  It  was  too  "educational"  to  edu- 
cate. 

Hornby,  however,  persisted.  Some  of  our  modern  educational 
theorists  might  have  told  him  that  teaching  through  play  was  an 
abuse  of  play,*  or  that  he  was  using  play  as  a  means  to  an  end, 
when  play  should  be  an  end  in  itself,**  or  that  his  procedure  was 
from  general  principle  to  application  where  it  should  be  the 
reverse.  His  own  analysis  of  the  difficulty  was  put  in  this  form : 
"The  boy  must  have  fun;  if  he  learns  anything  in  the  process, 
so  much  the  better."     Since  1907  the  Hornby  System  has  been 


*J.  C.  Merriam,  Child  Life  and  the  Curriculum. 
**John  Dewey. 


12  After-School  Material  in  Science 

virtually  extinct.    In  its  place  has  come  the  toy  that  millions  of 
boys  the  world  over  play  with. 

Let  us  contrast  with  the  quotations  cited  before  from  the 
Hornby  System  Manual  the  following  excerpts  from  the  later 
series  of  Meccano  Instruction  Books : 

"Meccano  Land — The  Land  of  Happy  Boys'* 

"Have  you  ever  heard  of  the  wonderful  new  country  where 
nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  boys — ^millions  of  them,  the  happy 
land  where  all  is  sunshine  and  joy  .  .  .  where  all  the  inhabi- 
tants crowd  the  fleeting  hours  with  enjoyment  and  fun? 

"The  young  ones  are  amusing  themselves  among  miniature 
cranes  and  bridges;  wagons  and  windmills;  trucks  and  towers — 
exquisite  little  engineering  models,  which  they  have  built  and  set 
to  work  for  themselves.  The  older  ones  are  building  and  play- 
ing with  great  structures,  real  giant  cranes,  big  bridges,  ingenious 
looms  for  real  weaving,  clocks  which  keep  time,  automobiles 
which  actually  run;  while  the  thoughtful  and  serious  boys  are 
busily  engaged  in  inventing  and  creating  new  and  ingenious  mod- 
els and  movements  for  themselves. 

"This  happy  country  is  called  Meccano  Land,  and  boys  from 
every  country  in  the  world  live  there.  Meccano  language  is  the 
universal  boy  language,  and  all  the  inhabitants  understand  and 
speak  it.  .  .  .  Many  boys  have  lived  in  Meccano  Land  for  ten 
years,  and  the  longer  they  live  there  the  happier  they  are.  Every 
day  boys  are  crowding  into  the  country  eager  to  participate  in  its 
wonders.  They  know  they  are  going  to  have  the  time  of  their 
lives;  more  fun  than  they  ever  had  before — healthy  boys'  fun; 
fun  which  will  make  them  glad  to  be  alive;  fun  which  will 
strengthen  their  characters;  set  their  brains  working,  and  teach 
them  something  which  will  make  them  into  big  and  successful 
men." 

And  then,  in  a  somewhat  calmer,  more  subdued  tone,  and  evi- 
dently directed  at  the  adult,  parent  or  teacher,  "Meccano  is  sold 
as  a  children's  toy,  to  give  them  fun,  interest  them,  and  instruct 
them  in  the  fascinating  wonders  of  engineering,  hut  every  day 
sees  a  fresh  use  for  it.  Engineers  and  architects  use  it  for 
designing  models  and  inventing  movements.  Professors  and 
teachers  in  technical  schools  use  it  to  demonstrate  mechanical 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described        13 

principles  to  their  students.  We  have  received  enthusiastic  let- 
ters from  inventors  who  have  designed  practical  commercial 
machines  with  Meccano  parts  for  weaving  and  other  purposes. 
It  is  largely  used  in  institutions  for  the  blind  for  teaching  patients, 
and  in  very  many  children's  hospitals." 

It  is  hard  to  say  whether  Hornby's  efforts  to  surround  his  toy 
with  "dignity"  have  been  of  use  to  him  either  to  increase  the 
number  of  sales  or  to  command  the  respect  of  educators.  This 
much  is  certain — that  the  Meccano  Company  has  been  convinced 
through  bitter  experience  that  the  fun  element  is  by  far  the  domi- 
nant contribution  of  Meccano.  And  for  purposes  of  this  study 
it  is  just  as  certain  that  we  must  evaluate  Meccano  as  it  func- 
tions in  the  life  of  the  boy. 

Meccano  as  it  is  sold  at  the  present  time  consists  of  about  fifty 
or  sixty  standardized  parts.  The  materials  are  in  the  main  of 
good  quality  iron  and  brass.  As  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustrations,*  the  parts  are  small  and  simple.  The  interchange- 
ability  of  parts  is  truly  the  most  ingenious  feature  of  the  device. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  in  words  the  endless  variety  of  uses 
to  which  each  part  can  be  put.  Only  one  who  has  built  with 
these  parts  can  appreciate  the  flexibility  of  the  toy.  There  are 
other  features  about  these  parts  which  are  worthy  of  mention 
from  a  mechanical  standpoint. 

1.  The  strength  and  elasticity  of  the  parts  make  for  good 
service  and  permanency. 

2.  In  the  main,  each  part  is  very  definitely  modeled  after  the 
same  part  as  it  functions  in  real  life. 

3.  The  holes  are  of  uniform  diameter  and  are  accurately 
spaced;  so  that  the  boy  is  not  handicapped  unnecessarily 
by  fortuitous  difficulties. 

4.  The  odd  number  of  holes  in  each  perforated  strip  make 
possible  a  great  many  balanced  structures. 

5.  The  spring  motor  and  the  electric  motor  are  efficient 
mechanisms  which  stand  up  well  in  service. 

The  boy  can  buy  a  Meccano  Outfit  (No.  00)  for  $1.00.  He 
can  buy  No.  OOA  for  50^  and  turn  his  No.  00  into  No.  0.  He 
can  buy  No.  OA  for  $1.50  and  turn  his  No.  0  to  a  No.  1.  No.  lA 


*The  illustrations  have  been  omitted  in  this  edition. 


14 


After-School  Maierial  in  Science 


for  $3.00  will  turn  his  No.  1  into  a  No.  2.  And  in  this  way, 
after  a  few  years,  he  can  own  the  most  complete  outfit — No.  6 — 
which  costs  about  $40.00.  In  the  following  table  the  possibilities 
of  each  of  these  sets  are  listed : 


Set 
umber 

No.  of 
Different  Parts 

Total  No. 
of  Parts 

Minimum  No. 
of  Models 
That  Can 
Be  Built 

0     

22 
15 

28 
15 

35 
21 

44 
28 

51 
21 

55 
42 

60 

28 

70 

76 

126 

136 

596 

78 
105 
175 
251 
377 
513 
1109 

80 

OA 

1      

105 

lA 

2     



151 

2A 

3      



106 

3A 

4     



247 

4 A 

5      



277 

5A 

6     



325 

Inventors' 

Outfits 

The  "minimum  number  of  models"  listed  above  represent  a 
bare  minimum.  Periodically  the  company  has  issued  new  man- 
uals of  instruction  to  supplement  the  original  ones  given  with  the 
various  sets ;  so  that  one  can  safely  double  the  number  here  given 
in  order  to  get  an  idea  of  the  mass  of  constructive  material  that 
the  company  makes  available  to  the  boy.  In  the  past  four  years 
the  writer  has  recorded  no  fewer  than  260  models,  not  found  in 
the  manuals  and  built  by  about  174  boys.  It  is  to  be  noted  also 
that  the  models  presented  with  the  more  advanced  sets  are  pro- 
portionately fewer,  but  mechanically  far  more  difficult  and  com- 
plex. 

In  a  later  chapter  the  manner  in  which  these  constructions 
were  collated  will  be  fully  discussed.  It  will  be  found  that  these 
models  came  originally,  like  the  writer's  260,  from  the  efforts  of 
boys  themselves.  Hence  an  analysis  of  the  types  of  models  be- 
comes significant,  since  it  is  indicative  of  certain  interests  and 
tendencies. 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described        15 

For  the  first  five  outfits  the  models  group  themselves  as  fol- 
lows: 

Type.  Number.                               Per  Cent. 

1.  Vehicles    55 202 

2.  Drills,  Presses,  Lathes   26 9.6 

3.  Cranes  and  Derricks 25 92 

4.  See  Saws  and  other  ''games"  ...  24 9.0 

5.  Furniture    17 6.2 

6.  Ploughs  and  other  farm  tools  . .  14 5.1 

7.  Bridges    9 3.3 

8.  Windmills    7 2.6 

9.  Railway  signals  7 2.6 

10.  Weighing  Scales   7.  .^ 2.6 

11.  Guns  and  Implements  of  War  . .       7 2.6 

12.  Aeroplanes    6 22 

13.  Ladders   6 .^ 22 

14.  Circular  Saws  5 1.8 

15.  Railway  Systems   3 1.1 

16.  Lawn  mowers   3 1.1 

17.  Elevator    3 1.1 

18.  Distance  Indicators  3 1.1 

19.  Miscellaneous  Items   45 16.0 

(occurring  no  of tener  than  twice) 

272  99.8 

The  most  striking  fact  about  the  above  figures  is  that  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  well-marked  tendency  in  favor  of  one 
type  of  construction.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  "Vehicles,"  the 
comparatively  large  percentage  of  20,2  would  dwindle  to  an  insig- 
nificant amount  if  we  made  but  a  slight  efifort  to  distinguish  be- 
tween different  types  of  vehicles.  Included  in  this  category  are 
models  ranging  from  baby-carriages  to  locomotives.  The  same 
might  be  said  of  ^'Drills,  Presses  and  Lathes,'*  and  of  "Derricks" 
and  of  "Games."  These  figures  are  borne  out  by  the  addition  of 
hundreds  of  new  models  in  the  past  few  years.  It  is  most  cer- 
tainly true  of  the  writer's  own  260  "original"  models.  In  other 
words,  the  interest  which  furnishes  the  child  with  motive  power 
to  manipulate  and  construct  does  not  tie  itself  too  closely  to  any 
environmental  material  in  particular;  but  rather  seeks  an  outlet 
in  diverse  paths. 

Another  rather  general  conclusion  regarding  these  models  is 


16  After-School  Material  in  Science 

that  by  far  the  greatest  portion  of  them  involve  the  element  of 
motion.  The  static  model  is  unpopular  and  infrequent.  Usu- 
ally this  element  of  motion  is  bound  up  with  the  usefulness  of 
the  model.  The  most  popular  models  are  the  ones  that  accom- 
plish a  useful  purpose  and  involve  moving  parts.  In  this  con- 
nection the  spring  motor  and  the  electric  motor  become  indis- 
pensable. 

The  Erector  Set  is  an  American  product  and  practically  the 
only  competitor  of  Meccano.  The  inventor,  A.  C.  Gilbert,  is  a 
Yale  graduate,  who  launched  his  idea  as  a  business  venture  when 
still  a  student  in  college.  It  was  brought  prominently  into  the 
market  at  approximately  the  same  time  that  Hornby  gave  up  his 
"System  of  Mechanical  Demonstration"  and  launched  the  later 
development  of  Meccano  previously  described.  It  might  be  of 
interest  to  trace  as  we  did  with  Meccano  the  origin  of  this  device, 
its  development,  especially  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  ideals  of  edu- 
cation. The  following  are  excerpts  from  letters  and  other  writ- 
ings of  A.  C.  Gilbert : 

"Three  things  always  interested  me  —  Athletics,  Sleight-of- 
Hand,  and  Scientific  experiments.  Outside  of  my  school  work, 
athletics  claimed  the  major  part  of  my  time,  but  a  good  share 
was  left  to  learn  the  secrets  of  scientific  things.  This  hobby 
which  I  had  had  ever  since  I  was  a  boy  helped  me  in  two  ways: 
first,  it  helped  me  earn  my  way  through  college,  and  second,  it 
helped  me  bring  science  down  to  a  boy's  understanding.  The 
first  money  I  ever  made  was  by  giving  magic  entertainments  to 
private  audiences,  and  while  entertaining  one  of  these  audiences 
in  this  way  the  thought  occurred  to  me  that  if  these  same  tricks 
I  was  doing  could  be  put  up  so  that  boys  would  understand  them 
easily,  they  would  have  a  splendid  sale.  ...  It  was  not  long 
before  Mysto  Magic  Sets  were  known  pretty  familiarly  all  over 
the  country. 

"Manufacturing  and  selling  just  magic  toys  did  not  satisfy  me. 
I  had  always  felt  that  toys,  besides  giving  a  great  amount  of  fun 
and  enjoyment,  also  had  a  big  influence  on  the  character  of  a  boy 
and  that  they  should  be  considered  of  great  importance  by  par- 
ents. I  realized  that  as  a  boy  I  always  had  a  longing  to  know 
more  about  the  secrets  of  nature  and  to  experiment  along  scien- 
tific lines.     So  I  conceived  the  idea  of  manufacturing  toys  of  a 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described        17 

character  and  kind  that  had  been  such  a  hobby  with  me  as  a  boy — 
real  engineering  toys." 

There  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  the  growth  of  Erector  was  as 
phenomenal  as  that  of  Meccano.  In  six  years  the  Gilbert  plant 
has  grown  from  a  wooden  shanty  to  a  modern  factory  covering 
acres  of  ground.  Whether  because  of  Hornby's  experience  or 
convictions  of  his  own,  Gilbert  has  never  strenuously  attempted 
to  surround  his  toy  with  the  ''dignity"  of  the  school-room.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  very  clearly  recognizes  larger  ideals  for  his 
product  than  mere  money-making.  Again  and  again  he  makes 
the  statement  that  "Toys  can  be  made  more  than  mere  playthings 
— ^they  could  be  made  to  mean  something  to  the  boy  and  his 
parents,"  and  that  he  "has  therefore  continued  to  bring  out  many 
engineering  toys  of  the  kind  and  character  that  will  hold  the 
boys'  interest  because  they  are  full  of  intensely  interesting  things 
and  because  they  provide  fun  and  amusement." 

As  it  is  sold  at  the  present  time,  Erector  consists  of  sixty  dif- 
ferent parts.  The  standardization  and  interchangeability  of  parts 
has  not  been  carried  to  as  high  a  point  of  development  as  has  the 
Meccano ;  but  there  is  nothing  inherent  in  the  device  which  should 
prevent  such  development.  The  material  is  of  a  cheaper  grade  of 
iron  than  Meccano,  with  not  as  fine  a  finish.  Instead  of  per- 
forated strips,  the  unit  of  construction  is  in  this  case  a  girder 
type  of  strip  that  can  fasten  at  the  ends  only,  by  means  of  a 
slip-joint  or  angle  iron  held  by  a  nut  and  bolt.  This  girder  strip 
is  wider  than  Meccano  and  permits  more  easily  of  the  building 
of  four-sided  columns  or  pillars;  or  even  three-cornered  and 
diamond-shaped  posts.  The  flexibility  of  Erector  and  the  possi- 
bilities for  original  construction  are  extremely  large,  though  not 
quite  up  to  the  mark  of  Meccano. 

Erector  is  sold  in  eight  sets.  The  Manuals  of  Instruction 
given  with  each  set  are  fully  illustrated  and  offer  a  wealth  of 
constructive  material  for  each  set.  Again  the  number  of  models 
offered  does  not  quite  equal  the  number  offered  by  Meccano. 
This,  however,  does  not  prove  a  serious  handicap.  Erector  sells 
individual  parts  in  any  quantity,  but  does  not  grade  its  sets,  so 
that  a  boy  cannot  feel  that  he  can  gradually  buy  enough  material 
to  turn  his  set  of  a  year  ago  into  the  most  complete  set  sold  by  the 


18  After-School  Material  in  Science 

company.  This  does  impose  a  hardship  and  is  a  decided  disad- 
vantage. 

Several  interesting  points  educationally  come  to  light  from  an 
analysis  of  the  Erector  Manual.  On  the  very  first  page,  the  boy 
is  cautioned  as  follows:  "Before  attempting  to  build  any  mod- 
els go  through  the  exercise  of  building  each  standard  detail.  This 
is  the  most  important  recommendation  we  have  to  make.  You 
will  not  be  successful  as  a  model  builder  unless  you  follow  these 
fundamental  instructions  implicitly."  Then,  by  means  of  illus- 
trated cuts,  thirty-five  elementary  exercises  are  described.  In 
some  cases  detailed  word  descriptions  are  given,  designed  to  help 
the  boy  build.  For  example,  "To  construct  a  square  girder: 
Commence  by  placing  a  long  screw  through  one  or  both  ends  of 
two  girders,  as  in  A,  then  separating  the  two  take  another  girder, 
pushing  it  down  into  the  grooves  or  channels  as  in  B.  Having 
assembled  the  three  sides,  take  the  fourth  girder  and  likewise 
insert  it  into  the  grooves,  as  in  C,  and  slide  it  down  until  the  two 
are  flush;  which  makes  you  a  square  column  girder  as  in  D." 

Among  the  thirty-five  elementary  constructions  are  many  which 
remind  one  of  the  Hornby  System.  The  boy  is  told  before  doing 
anything  at  all  to  make  a  lap-joint,  a  right-angle  connection,  an 
acute  connection,  a  connection  for  branch  girders,  a  cross-con- 
nection using  screw,  nut  and  washer,  a  four-way  girder  connec- 
tion, eccentric  motion,  and  interchangeable  gear-box,  a  five-way 
connection,  a  double  pulley  connection,  a  six-way  girder-corner, 
a  brake  mechanism,  etc.,  etc. 

Having  been  drilled  in  the  elements,  he  can  then  proceed  to  do 
what  he  enjoys.  There  is  a  diflFerence  between  Hornby's  "ele- 
ments" and  Gilbert's.  The  former  were  fewer  in  number  and 
truer  to  actual  machinery.  The  latter  to  a  great  extent  are  pecu- 
liar to  the  inherent  characteristics  of  Erector  and  are  not  dupli- 
cated very  often  in  actual  life.  The  reaction  of  the  boy  to  these 
preliminaries,  before  he  can  actually  build,  varies  with  the  boy. 
Some  will  tire  very  easily  and  will  jump  into  actual  construction 
at  once.  Gilbert  seems  to  realize  that  this  tendency  exists  among 
boys  and  attempts  to  head  the  boy  off  by  repeated  warnings 
throughout  the  manual.  Thus,  on  page  three :  "Warning-'  You 
must  not  proceed  with  your  models  until  you  have  worked  out 
all  the  standard  details  on  pages  1  and  2 ;  even  if  you  are  an  old 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         19 

Gilbert  Model  Builder.  I  find  myself,  after  having  built  thou- 
sands of  models,  that  I  frequently  refer  to  the  Standard  Details 
for  reference  and  help."  And  again,  a  little  later  on:  "The 
square  girder  and  the  triangular  girder  are  the  fundamentals  of 
real  structural  steel  engineering.  You  simply  must  practice  this 
until  you  can  do  it  simply  and  easily.  The  boy  who  cannot  do 
this  will  never  become  a  Gilbert  Engineer."  Still  later  on,  with 
more  complicated  models,  he  sounds  another  warning,  and  this 
time  adds  a  new  note:  ''Patience.  This  will  require  some  pa- 
tience, but  you  will  not  regret  it;  and  you  will  enjoy  your  Erector 
a  good  deal  more  by  so  doing."  My  experience  has  been  that 
the  boy  as  a  rule  does  not  heed  these  warnings.  There  always  are 
a  few  who  faithfully  and  painstakingly  subject  themselves  to 
Gilbert's  training ;  but  they  are  never  the  brilliant  builders.  There 
are,  however,  a  very  considerable  number  who  will  refer  to  the 
Standard  Details  when  they  are  "stumped."  As  a  reference  to 
be  looked  up  when  needed,  Gilbert's  elementary  exercises  are  a 
valuable  asset;  but  his  toy  suffers  from  this  unavoidable  compli- 
cation. 

Another  interesting  feature  of  the  Erector  Manual  is  the  at- 
tempt to  lead  the  boy  gradually  to  the  point  where  he  will  build 
his  own  original  models.  Under  the  caption  of  Imagination,  the 
manual  tells  the  boy  that  "Nothing  but  illustrations  are  shown 
in  these  models;  because  we  wish  to  encourage  imagination  and 
resourcefulness  and  to  help  you  later  on  in  creating  your  own 
models."  As  in  the  case  of  the  admonishings  to  practice  and  to 
be  patient,  the  boy  misses  the  point  completely.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  one  boy  out  of  five  ever  constructs  a  model  exactly  as  he 
sees  it  in  the  picture;  the  other  four  just  naturally  ignore  the 
illustration  and  alter  it  in  many  small  ways.  Often  (this  will  be 
discussed  more  fully  in  a  later  chapter)  a  boy  when  half  way 
through  with  a  model  will  be  inspired  to  alter  completely  his  orig- 
inal plans  or  design  and  fashion  out  of  the  beginning  given  him 
by  the  manual  an  entirely  new  creation.  Furthermore,  this  is 
just  as  likely  to  happen  with  a  boy  playing  with  Erector  the  first 
time  as  with  a  boy  who  has  had  Erector  for  a  year. 


20  After-School  Material  in  Science 

For  the  first  six  outfits  the  Erector  models  group  themselves  as 
follows : 

Type.  Number.  Per  Cent. 

1.  Vehicles    23 21.9 

2.  Drill  Presses  &  Lathes  10 .^ 9.5 

3.  Furniture    10 9.5 

4.  Windmills    6 , 9.5 

5.  Games    6 5.7 

6.  Cranes  &  Derricks  5 4.8 

7.  Aeroplanes   5 4.8 

8.  Boats    5 4.8 

9.  Railroads    3 2.9 

10.  Gear  Arrangements  3 ,. 2.9 

11.  Railroad  Signals  2 1.9 

12.  Washing  Machines   2 1.9 

13.  Pumps    2 1.9 

14.  Lighthouses    2 1.9 

15.  Bridges    2 1.9 

16.  Telescopes 2 1.9 

17.  Miscellaneous  Items   17 162 

(occurring  no  oftener  than  once)   

105  100.1 

A  comparison  with  the  similar  table  for  Meccano  bears  out  our 
conclusion  as  to  the  wide  scope  of  this  type  of  interest.  Note  also 
that  approximately  the  same  types  of  models  head  the  list  in  both 
Meccano  and  Erector.  This  is  especially  interesting  when  we 
realize  that  the  Meccano  models  have  in  the  main  evolved  from 
the  activities  of  the  English  boy — and  the  Erector  models  from 
those  of  the  American.  Too  much  importance,  however,  should 
not  be  placed  upon  this,  as  there  is  no  way  of  knowing  the  extent 
to  which  the  Erector  has  copied  consciously  or  unconsciously 
from  Meccano  and  vice  versa.  Although  the  writer's  260  models 
agree  closely  with  the  figures  of  the  two  tables  here  given,  it  is 
just  as  true  that  the  boys  under  observation  have  been  known  to 
take  their  inspiration  from  what  they  found  in  the  manuals.  A 
similar  analysis  of  the  Structo  Manual  shows  roughly  the  same 
figures. 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         21 

One  further  feature  of  Erector  is  worthy  of  mention.  When- 
ever, in  presenting  a  new  model,  Gilbert  finds  it  necessary  to 
introduce  a  new  and  important  part,  the  manual  at  once  becomes 
an  elementary  text  attempting  to  teach  the  new  principles  in- 
volved. Thus,  when  he  introduces  the  electric  motor,  he  also 
offers  an  explanation  of  why  the  motor  turns,  several  wiring 
diagrams  and  a  simple  discussion  of  volts  and  amperes.  He  fol- 
lows an  identical  procedure  when  he  finds  need  to  introduce  the 
rheostat,  the  gear-box,  the  reversible  switch  and  the  transformer. 
This  text-book  feature  of  the  manual  functions  to  a  greater 
extent  than  any  of  the  other  teaching  devices  in  Erector;  and 
chiefly  because  of  the  strategic  places  which  this  material  occu- 
pies. Just  as  the  boy  wishes  to  automatize  a  model,  the  electric 
motor  is  offered  him;  and  of  course  he  reads  the  explanatory 
material  that  goes  with  it.  The  text,  however,  is  not  always  clear 
or  readable ;  and  so  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

As  regards  the  Structo  toy,  there  is  not  much  of  value  that 
can  be  had  from  as  close  a  study  or  analysis  as  has  been  made  of 
Meccano  and  Erector.  It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  toy  has 
no  further  contribution  to  make,  resembling  very  closely  the  Mec- 
cano. The  only  part  of  its  business  which  has  not  been  affected 
by  the  decision  of  the  courts  is  the  manufacture  of  wheels  and 
gears  of  rather  substantial  quality.  These  they  put  out  in  all 
sorts  of  dissectible  "go-carts,"  "push-mobiles,"  and  "scooters" 
which  do  not  fall  legitimately  within  the  scope  of  this  study. 

Another  important  and  rather  popular  type  of  "toy  outfit"  is 
the  Chemical  Set.  Of  these,  three  prominent  types  will  be  dis- 
cussed :  The  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit,  the  Porter  Chemcraft  Set, 
and  the  St.  John  Fun  with  Chemistry. 

History  and  Development  of  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit 
Originally  this  set  was  sold  as  a  "Mysto  Magic"  Outfit.  At 
least,  it  was  the  "magic"  trade  that  suggested  the  idea.  Gilbert 
realized  very  early  in  his  experience  that  boys  and  adults  for  that 
matter  enjoy  the  mysterious ;  but  he  learned  also  that  to  explain 
the  mysterious  and  bring  it  within  the  realm  of  human  under- 
standing in  no  way  detracted  from  the  enjoyment.  In  fact  it 
enhanced  the  pleasure  and  made  this  sort  of  play  more  appealing. 
Psychologically,  this  idea  is  of  course  sound.  Vaudeville  per- 
formers have  long  made  use  of  this  psychological  fact  when  they 


22  After-School  Material  in  Science 

do  some  puzzling,  impossible  stunt  and  then  let  the  audience  in  on 
the  secret.  There  is  usually  a  laugh,  loud  applause  and  quite  a 
general  feeling  of  satisfaction.  The  magician  who  attempts  to 
impress  an  audience  with  his  super-natural  powers,  is  more  apt 
to  succeed  in  classifying  himself  as  a  fake,  a  charlatan,  and  in 
eliciting  from  his  audience  a  host  of  widely  varying  reactions  in 
which  quite  unworthy  methods  and  motives  are  attributed  to  him. 
In  other  words,  to  every  situation  there  always  is  some  response. 
And  as  Thorndike  puts  it,  "When  any  conduction  unit  is  in  readi- 
ness to  conduct,  for  it  to  do  so  is  satisfying,  for  it  not  to  do  so 
is  annoying."  Educationally,  the  response  to  a  situation  which 
involves  satisfaction  is  the  response  which  will  tend  to  be  tied 
permanently  to  that  situation.  In  the  case  of  our  Chemical  Magic, 
explanations  in  terms  of  the  laws  of  chemistry  offer  a  response 
to  a  puzzling  situation  far  more  satisfying  and  therefore  more 
educational  than  the  response  of  being  left  just  mystified. 

The  evolution  of.Mysto  Magic  into  a  Chemistry  Outfit  immedi- 
ately produced  a  larger  market  and  a  more  popular  appeal.  In 
1917  Gilbert  issued  his  first  definite  effort  to  "bring  chemical 
science  down  to  the  level  of  the  boy's  understanding."  Although 
it  made  its  appeal  to  the  fun  or  play  motive  it  was  certainly  an 
advance  beyond  the  collection  of  magic  stunts  which  preceded  it. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  this  later  development  and  in 
others  that  followed,  Mr.  Gilbert  has  called  in  experts  in  the  field 
to  assist  him  with  their  technical  knowledge.  In  this  particular 
case  a  research  chemist  with  a  PhD  from  Yale  is  responsible  for 
the  presentation  of  Chemical  laws  and  facts.  Other  experts  on 
Gilbert's  staff  are  a  radio  operator  with  a  degree  from  Columbia 
University,  an  engineer  with  experience  from  the  General  Electric 
Company,  a  Worcester  Polytechnic  graduate,  a  former  mechanic 
of  the  Fire  Alarm  and  Telegraph  Company,  a  master  mechanic 
from  the  Sargent  Lock  Company,  an  experimental  engineer  from 
the  Wireless  Division  of  the  United  States  Army,  an  official  of 
the  Hoyt  Electrical  Company,  and  Mr.  Gilbert  himself  who  is 
an  M.D. 

Educational  Aims  of  the  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit 

To  understand  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  Company  it  is 
perhaps  best  to  quote  from  the  Manual : 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         23 

''Chemistry  is,  without  doubt,  the  most  important  of  the  sciences, 
but  it  far  outranks  them,  towering  above  them  like  a  giant.  The 
reason  for  this  is  because  of  the  close  relation  of  Chemistry  to  our 
every-day  life.  Look  about  you — every  object  you  see  has  some 
Chemistry  involved  in  its  history.  The  manufacture  of  some 
articles  depends  entirely  upon  Chemistry;  the  manufacture  of 
others  only  partly.  The  ink  you  write  with,  the  soap  you  wash 
with,  the  food  you  eat;  all  are  in  some  way  or  other  interlinked 
with  chemistry.  Every  day  wonderful  new  industries  are  spring- 
ing up,  built  purely  upon  some  Chemical  discovery. 

''It  is  difficult  to  realize  exactly  how  widespread  Chemistry  is, 
since  it  is  so  broad  that  it  now  includes  what  once  were  separate 
sciences.  We  all  know  of  the  part  it  has  played  in  the  European 
war.  Indeed  it  has  been  stated  that  Chemistry  is  the  great 
weapon  of  the  conflict.  We  have  read  of  the  use  of  liquid  fire, 
poisonous  gases,  high  explosives — all  of  these  come  within  the 
realm  of  Chemistry.  .  .  .  There  was  a  time  when  Chemistry 
was  regarded  as  akin  to  sorcery.  It  was  suppsoed  that  all  chem- 
icals were  deadly  poisons,  that  every  chemical  reaction  resulted 
in  an  explosion.  The  men  who  practiced  chemistry  had  to  do  so 
in  secret,  because  they  were  regarded  by  the  people  with  super- 
stition and  dread  as  related  to  the  devil.  .  .  .  To-day,  matters 
are  entirely  altered.  There  is  no  need  for  secrecy.  The  Chemist 
is  looked  upon  with  respect  and  there  is  a  general  desire  to  know 
more  about  Chemistry. 

''To  satisfy  in  part  this  thirst  for  chemical  knowledge  and  to 
afford  the  extreme  pleasure  derived  from,  the  performance  of  the 
entrancing  experiments  is  the  purpose  of  this  chemical  outfit. 

"We  have  aimed  to  make  the  subject  alive,  real  and  amusing  by 
taking  for  Chemical  explanation  the  things  one  sees  and  uses 
every  day  of  his  life.  There  is  no  age  limit  for  this  outfit.  For 
the  child — because  he  is  intensely  interested  and  derives  real 
pleasure  from  it — it  is  a  toy.  For  the  grown-up — who  realizes 
the  value  of  the  information  herein — it  is  an  instructive  pastime." 

As  a  statement  of  aim  the  above  compares  very  favoraWy  with 
recent  thought  among  leaders  in  science  teaching.  The  outfit  aims 
to  deal  with  environmental  chemistry  and  to  make  its  appeal  to 
the  genuine  interest  of  the  child. 


24  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Materials,  Activities  and  Methods  of  the  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit. 

The  Manual  opens  with  a  set  of  "general  directions,"  covering 
five  important  points :  Measuring  chemicals,  dissolving  chemicals, 
using  test  tubes,  heating,  and  some  notes  on  care  of  apparatus. 
Chemicals  are  measured  in  an  exceedingly  rough  way.  One 
measure  of  any  dry  chemical  is  defined  as  ''as  much  as  the  small 
flat  end  of  a  spoon  will  hold  after  lightly  tapping  it."  The  success 
of  experiments  is,  however,  very  seldom  dependent  upon  a  more 
accurate  measurement  of  proportions.  Heating  of  chemicals  is 
done  by  means  of  a  candle  flame,  and  is  not  always  satisfactory. 
Another  "general  direction"  that  reminds  one  very  much  of  the 
Erector  method  is  this:  "It  is  further  suggested  that  it  would 
be  a  good  idea  to  read  the  entire  manual  before  attempting  to  do 
any  experiments.  If  this  is  done  you  will  find  many  points  clearer 
and  mistakes  less  frequent."  One  boy  in  twenty  will  make  an 
attempt  even  to  follow  out  this  direction. 

To  do  the  75  experiments  suggested  by  the  manual,  the  outfit 
provides  small  quantities  of  about  40  different  chemicals,  a  candle, 
some  filter  paper,  rubber  stoppers,  glass  tubing,  glass  funnel, 
mortar  and  pestle,  measuring  spoon,  a  test  tube  brush  and  some 
test  tubes — all  contained  in  a  box  of  not  over  300  cubic  inches  in 
volume.  In  the  most  recent  chemical  outfit  (to  be  described  later) 
the  list  of  materials  are  supplied  in  a  box  of  not  over  600  cubic 
inches.     They  enable  a  boy  to  perform  453  different  experiments. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  list  of  75  chemicals,  appended  to 
Williams  and  Whitman's,  Laboratory  Exercises  in  General  Chem- 
istry contains  50  of  the  chemicals  supplied  in  the  Gilbert  Chemistry 
Outfit.  The  chemistry  laboratory  manual  referred  to  is  a  typical 
high  school  laboratory  guide. 

As  for  the  experiments  themselves,  they  are  of  two  different 
types.  By  far  the  major  portion  of  them  (62  out  of  77)  are 
devoted  to  a  series  of  practical  exercises  more  or  less  appealing 
to  the  boy.  The  other  fifteen  are  especially  adapted  to  Magical 
Entertainments  and  are  probably  the  remnants  of  the  old  Mysto 
Magic. 

The  following  are  excerpts  from  the  "Table  of  Contents" : 
General  Directions. 
The  Chemical  Wet  Electric  Cell. 

How  and  why  it  generates  current. 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         25 

Electro-plating. 

How  to  give  an  object  a  coating  of  metallic  nickel  and 
copper. 
How  to  Make  a  Duplicate  of  your  Medal. 

Process  of  Electrotyping. 
How  to  Etch  Electrically  Upon  Copper. 
How  to  Petrify  the  Baby's  Shoe. 
The  Lemon  Electric  Cell. 
The  Filter  Funnel  and  Filter  Paper.     How  to  Use  Them. 

Making  a  Precipitate. 
Testing  for  Acids  and  Bases. 

(a)  With  Litmus. 

(b)  With  Phenolphthalein. 

Beautifully  Colored  Precipitates  with  Phenolphthalein. 

Testing  for  Metals  by  Their  Flame  Colors. 

How  to  Fire  Proof  Cloth  and  Wood. 

Making  Chemical  Soap  Bubbles. 

The  Standard  Peroxide  Test. 

Inserting  an  Egg  into  a  Bottle  by  Softening  the  Shell. 

How  to  Start  a  Fire  Chemically. 

Experiments  in  Crystallization. 

(a)  Making  Frosted  Glass. 

(b)  How  Rock  Candy  is  Made. 

(c)  Nickel  Crystals. 
Make  Your  Own  Ink. 

Disappearing  Ink  and  Why  It  Disappears. 

What  is  India  Ink? 

Black  Sympathetic  Ink. 

Lovers'  Ink. 

How  to  Make  a  Weather  Barometer. 

Baking  Powder. 

Making  Coke  from  Soft  Coal. 

Making  Illuminating  Gas. 

Chemistry  of  the  Gas  Flame.    Tapping  a  Flame. 

How  to  Make  an  Acid  from  Wood. 

(a)  Application  to  Food  Smoking  Industry. 

(b)  How  Charcoal  is  Made. 
Carbon — How  Diamonds  Are  Made. 

Graphite. 


26  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Hard  and  Soft  Water. 

How  to  Make  Your  Own  Soap. 

Chemical  Plants. 

Manufacture  of  Soap,  Powder  and  Shaving  Cream. 

How  Glass  is  Made. 

Rust — How  It  Forms. 

How  to  Bend  a  Glass  Tube. 

Explanation  of  the  Hand  Fire  Extinguisher. 

Chemistry  of  Photography. 

Why  Silver  Tarnishes  and  How  to  Remove  the  Tarnish. 

The  Incandescent  Gas  Lamp. 

The  Electric  Lamp. 

Manufacture  of  White  Lead. 

Iodine. 

Vinegar. 

How  Leather  is  Made. 

Paraffin— What  It  Is. 

Helping  Hints  for  Your  Laboratory. 

Definitions  of  Chemical  Terms. 

MAGIC  PROGRAM— WITH  PATTER  TALK 

Change  Wine  to  Water  by  Passing  Hand  Over  Glass. 

Pour  Wine  from  a  Glass  Pitcher  of  Water. 

Pour  Milk  from  a  Milk  Bottle  Full  of  Water. 

Change  Blue  Paper  to  Pink  in  Your  Hand. 

Blow  the  Color  from  a  Blue  Handkerchief. 

Blow  Chalk  into  Water  with  Your  Breath. 

Second-sight.     An  Amazing  Exhibition  of  Mind  Reading. 

Write  Black  with  Water. 
As  can  be  seen  from  the  above  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
definite  attempt  to  marshal  this  wealth  of  chemical  knowledge 
under  the  laws  of  chemistry  or  even  under  a  few  large  categories. 
It  might  be  said  that  in  the  main  the  organization  is  psychological 
rather  than  logical,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  organization 
does  not  lead  on  to  any  larger  conceptions.  The  "definitions  of 
chemical  terms"  coming  at  the  end  of  the  manual,  are  a  mere 
glossary  designed  to  enlighten  the  boy  as  to  certain  technical 
terms.    To  it  the  boy  seldom  refers. 

The  purpose  then  of  the  manual  is  to  introduce  the  boy  to  a 
host  of  experiences,  more  or  less  important  and  not  at  all  con- 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         27 

nected  one  with  another.  With  each  exercise  is  offered  a  text. 
Thus,  after  a  description  of  how  one  is  to  go  about  assembling, 
testing  and  using  the  wet  cell,  there  are  found  some  paragraphs 
headed,  "How  The  Wet  Cell  Works,"  "Chemical  Action  of  the 
Wet  Cell,"  "Local  Action  and  How  to  Prevent  It,"  and  "Polariza- 
tion." To  the  directions  for  Electrotyping  are  appended  para- 
graphs on  "What  it  is,"  "How  It  Worked,"  and  "Chemical  Ex- 
planation." "Testing  for  Acids  and  Bases"  is  a  presentation  of 
the  chemical  differences  between  these  two  types  of  substances, 
interspersed  with  a  manipulation  or  two,  somewhat  after  the 
fashion  of  a  high  school  chemistry  text.  And  so  on  throughout 
the  manual.  As  if  realizing  that  this  descriptive  matter  made 
rather  "deep  and  heavy"  reading  for  most  boys,  Gilbert  has 
scattered  throughout  a  trick  stunt  or  two,  to  relieve  the  tension. 

"To  make  chemical  soap  bubbles,"  "To  insert  an  tgg  into  a 
bottle,"  and  "Lovers'  Ink"  are  a  few  typical  instances.  Occasion- 
ally Gilbert  forsakes  the  definite  effort  to  "teach"  and  launches 
forth  into  a  series  of  experiments  that  differ  very  little  from  the 
usual  type  of  recipe  book.  Taken  altogether  the  manual  is  a 
conglomerate  mass,  now  simulating  a  logical  presentation,  now 
making  a  play  for  the  interest  of  the  boy — and  not  succeeding 
entirely  in  either  attempt. 

Nevertheless,  the  manual  presents  and  makes  possible  a  set  of 
novel  activities,  isolated  though  they  be,  that  are  important  in  the 
boy's  environment.  How  he  takes  advantage  of  these  possibilities 
and  how  he  reacts  to  the  organization  or  lack  of  organization  of 
the  manual  will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit  was  not  long  in  the  market  before 
three  or  four  competitors  appeared.  One  of  these,  by  dint  of 
better  advertising,  more  liberal  allowance  of  chemicals,  better 
organization  of  materials,  and  more  workable  experiments  has 
become  the  most  popular  toy  of  its  type. 

History  and  Development 

That  the  Porter  Set  had  its  inspiration  in  the  Gilbert  set  there 
is  no  doubt.  The  manual  begins  in  an  almost  identical  strain 
with  the  Gilbert  manual,  extolling  the  marvels  of  chemical  science 
and  dwelling  upon  its  importance  in  our  everyday  life.  "The 
whole  great  universe  about  us  from  its  uppermost  heights  to  its 


28  After-School  Material  in  Science 

lowest  depths  is  built  up  of  chemicals  and  chemical  compounds. 
Earth,  sky  and  water  are  all  passing  through  constant  chemical 
changes.  Deep  down  in  the  ground  coal  is  being  formed  from  the 
remains  of  prehistoric  forests.  Precious  metals  and  ores  are 
being  smelted  under  the  heat  and  pressure  of  millions  of  tons  of 
earth  and  rock.  On  the  surface  of  the  earth,  air  and  water  are 
constantly  producing  chemical  changes  in  everything  they  touch. 
All  nature  is  but  a  series  of  wonderful  chemical  reactions ;  plants, 
forests,  birds,  animals  and  people  are  all  complex  chemical  engines. 
Chemistry  is  more  closely  interwoven  with  the  industries  of  the 
world  than  any  other  science.  .  .  .  Surely  a  population  edu- 
cated in  the  science  of  Chemistry  is  the  greatest  asset  your  country 
can  have." 

H.  M.  Porter,  professor  of  chemistry  in  a  small  western  college 
is  responsible  for  the  working  out  and  arranging  of  the  materials. 
His  son,  also  a  chemist,  is  responsible  for  the  promotion  of  the 
scheme  as  a  commercial  undertaking,  and  is  at  present  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  movement.  The  company  at  the  present  time  sells 
four  Chemcraft  Outfits  ranging  in  price  from  $1.50  to  $11.00. 
The  more  expensive  sets  are  just  as  popular  as  the  less  expensive 
ones. 

EduccUional  Aims 
In  the  words  of  the  manual,  "no  matter  what  profession  a  man 
follows,  he  is  greatly  handicapped  without  a  knowledge  of  chem- 
istry. The  manufacturer,  the  farmer,  the  tradesman,  the  profes- 
sional man,  the  scientist,  all  have  constant  need  of  chemical 
knowledge.  In  the  home  the  housewife  who  knows  nothing  of 
the  chemistry  of  the  food  she  prepares  or  of  the  materials  which 
she  daily  uses  is  seriously  handicapped.  In  Chemcraft  the 
various  phases  of  chemistry  have  been  combined  into  a  series  of 
fascinating  experiments  which  will  furnish  amusement  for  the 
young  people  during  many  profitable  hours;  and  as  the  experi- 
menter gains  in  skill  and  knowledge  he  can  by  means  of  the 
number  three  and  four  Chemcraft  extend  still  further  his  intimacy 
with  this  most  fascinating  science."  The  aim  of  the  Porter  set 
then  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Gilbert  set  in  that  the  same  two  ideas 
are  stressed :  fun  for  the  boy  and  time  ^'profitably"  (educationally) 
spent.  The  Porter  differs  from  the  Gilbert  in  attempting  to  grade 
its  experiments  so  that  as  the  boy  becomes  older  and  more  familiar 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         29 

with  chemical  experiences  he  will  be  more  and  more  introduced 
to  larger  laws,  principles  and  concepts.  The  Porter  set,  too,  lays 
far  greater  stress  on  the  organizing  of  small  boy  laboratories. 
More  will  be  said  later  on  the  question  of  the  laboratory  in  the 
home. 

Materials,  Activities,  and  Methods  of  Chemcraft 

In  a  box  12"  x  18"  x  3>^",  (the  No.  4  Set),  are  supplied  60 
different  chemicals  and  15  different  pieces  of  equipment.  The 
chemicals  and  equipment  differ  very  little  from  the  list  previously 
given  for  the  Gilbert  set  and  are  just  as  frequently  a  major  part 
of  the  regular  high  school  stock  of  chemicals.  The  manual  offers 
607  different  experiments,  though  that  by  no  means  exhausts  the 
possibilities  of  the  outfit.  For  purposes  of  definiteness  and  future 
reference  excerpts  from  the  Table  of  Contents  are  here  g^ven : 

PART  I 

Chemistry  and  Its  Application  to  the  Industries 
How  Chemistry  Grew  From  Alchemy 

Chemical  Elements  ~r 

Experiment 

(1)  Combination  of  Zinc  and  Sulphur 

(2)  Combination  of  Iron  and  Sulphur 

(3)  Combination  of  Zinc  and  Oxygen 

(4)  Combination  of  Magnesium  and  Oxygen 

(5)  The  Decomposition  of  Sodium  Thiosulphate 

(6)  Breaking  up  Ammonium  Nitrate 

(7)  The  Decomposition  of  Sugar 

(8)  An  Exchange  of  Elements — Ferric  Ammonium  Sulphate 
and  Calcium  Oxide 

(9)  Displacement — Copper  Sulphate  and  Iron 

(10)  Displacement — Copper  Sulphate  and  Zinc 

(11)  Displacement — Copper  Sulphate  and  Magnesium 

Acids,  Alkalies  and  Salts 

(12)  Forming  a  Base 

(13)  Forming  Carbonic  Acid 


30  After-School  Material  in  Science 

(14)  Forming  Sulphurous  Acid 

(15)  Forming  a  Salt 

(16)  Neutralizing  a  Base  with  an  Acid 

(17)  Making  an  Acid 

(18)  Double  Decomposition  of  Two  Salts 

(19)  Reaction  of  Calcium  Chloride  and  Sodium  (Carbonate 

(20)  Making  a  Base 

Indicators 
(23  experiments) 

Air — Oxygen 
(14  experiments) 

Hydrogen 
(4  experiments) 

Water 
(35  experiments) 

Testing  Water 
(13  experiments) 

Nitrogen 

(111)  Separating  Nitrogen  from  the  Air 

(112)  The  Properties  of  Nitrogen 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen 
(13  experiments) 

The  Halogen  Group 

Carbon — Combustion 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         31 

Compounds  of  Carbon 

Carbonates 

Sulphur 

Compounds  of  Sulphur 
Sulphates 

Sulphides 

Silicon  and  Silicates 

Glass 

Boron  and  Borates 

Phosphates 

Hydroxides 

Sodium  and  Soda  Industries 

Potassium  and  the  Potash  Industries 

Calcium  and  Calcium  Compounds 

Strontium  and  the  Fireworks  Industry 

Compounds  of  Aluminum 

Magnesium 

Oxidation  and  Reduction  of  Metals 

Testing  Metals 

Alloys 

Paints  and  Pigments 

Ink  Industry 


32  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Textiles  and  Dyes 

Soup  and  Glycerine 

Tanning 

Paper  Making 

Glues — Adhesives  and  Gums 

Fermentation 

Starch  and  Sugar 

Perfumes  and  Flower  Oils 

Electro  Chemistry 

Artificial  Gems 

Household  Chemistry 

The  Chemistry  of  Farming 

Chemistry  of  Foods 

PART  II 

Chemical  Magic,  or  Magic  Inks  and  Papers 

Sympathetic  Inks 

Magic  Changes 


Magic  Colors 
Magic  Liquids 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         33 
Chemical  Flags 

Chemical  Sorcery- 
Chemical  Colors 
Chemical  Smells 
Indicator  Tricks 
Miscellaneous 

Sets  1,  2  and  3  differ  from  Set  4  in  that  fewer  experiments 
are  offered  under  each  of  such  categories  as  "Chemical  Ele- 
ments," "Acids,  Alkalies,  and  Salts,"  etc.;  and  sometimes  whole 
groups  of  experiments  are  omitted.  Thus,  Set  No.  1  offers  50 
experiments.  Set  No.  2  offers  128,  Set  No.  3  offers  256,  and  Set 
No.  4  offers  607.  Apparently  Chemcraft  carries  out  its  aim  of 
gradually  leading  the  experimenter  on  to  greater  understanding 
of  the  laws  of  chemistry,  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  materials. 
There  is  no  marked  gradation  in  the  difficulty  of  the  experiments 
or  in  the  type  of  thinking  required  as  one  goes  from  Set  No.  1 
to  Set  No.  4.  In  fact.  Set  No.  4,  because  it  contains  a  greater 
number  of  exercises  and  illustrations  for  each  law  or  principle, 
is  a  much  more  effective  presentation — easier  to  understand  and 
pedagogically  more  sound.  So  that  the  beginner  has  a  more  dif- 
ficult time  than  the  boy  who  is  more  advanced.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  organization,  the  Porter  set  swings  to  the  opposite 
extreme.  As  can  be  seen  from  the  Table  of  Contents,  there  is  a 
very  definite  marshalling  of  materials  into  groups;  generally 
speaking,  a  logical  ordering  of  topics.  The  procedure  from 
"chemical  elements"  to  "composition  of  elements,"  to  "decompo- 
sition," "exchange  of  elements"  and  "displacement"  reminds  one 
of  the  average  standard  text  in  elementary  chemistry.  So  does 
the  treatment  of  "Acids,  Alkalies  and  Salts,"  "Air  and  Oxygen," 
"Hydrogen,"  "Water,"  "The  Halogen  Group,"  etc.,  etc.  Very 
clearly,  then,  Porter  has  the  conviction  that  the  conglomerate 
mass  of  the  Gilbert  Set  is  a  mistake.     And  because  his  set  has 


34  After-School  Material  in  Science 

outsold  the  Gilbert,  he  has  maintained  and  proposes  to  maintain 
his  present  organization.  It  has  been  the  observation  of  the 
writer  that  the  business  man,  when  spurred  on  by  competition,  is 
apt  to  be  extremely  conservative  when  once  he  has  found  that 
his  product  is  an  advance  over  others  in  the  market.  It  is  "sound 
business"  to  exploit  a  "paying  proposition"  quickly  and  inten- 
sively. Further  improvements  only  interest  the  average  business 
man  when  sales  are  on  the  decline.  It  is  exceptional  to  find  a 
manufacturer  striving  to  reach  ultimate  perfection  of  his  product 
when  the  product  that  he  has  is  sufficiently  good  to  beat  its  com- 
petitors. This  purely  materialistic  criterion  is,  of  course,  unac- 
ceptable to  the  educator.  Though  the  business  man's  criterion 
indicates  tendencies,  it  would  be  dangerous  to  limit  progress  by 
means  of  it. 

In  the  case  of  Chemcraft  the  educator  is  interested  in  an 
organization  of  materials  that  will  be  psychological;  that  is,  an 
ordering  of  materials  that  will  start  with  the  interest  of  the  child 
and  work  gradually  toward  a  scientific  organization  of  the  knowl- 
edge involved.  Not  that  there  is  an  a  priori  assurance  that  such 
a  presentation  will  be  more  successful  either  as  a  producer  of 
sales  or  as  an  educational  instrument;  but  that  such  a  trial  is 
necessary  before  final  conclusions  are  drawn.  The  situation,  how- 
ever, took  quite  a  diflferent  turn.  A  perusal  of  the  following 
Table  of  Contents  from  the  latest  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit — 
brought  forth  to  bolster  up  the  sales  of  the  Gilbert  product — 
will  make  it  quite  evident  that  they  have  no  desire  to  experi- 
ment very  much  further  with  the  make-up  of  the  Porter  Set. 

This,  of  course,  may  be  regarded  as  "safe  and  sane"  business 
policy.  But  it  is  hard  to  see  how  the  policy  can  further  educa- 
tional ends. 

PART  I 

Inorganic  Chemistry  and  Its  Commercial  Application  to 
THE  Industries 

Matter  in  Chemistry 
Kinds  of  Matter 
The  Three  Forms  of  Matter 
Division  of  Matter 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         35 

Experiment 

(1)  Division  of  Matter 

(2)  Division  of  Matter 

(3)  Division  of  Matter 

Molecules  are  Small  Particles  of  Matter 
Difference  Between  Solids,  Liquids  and  Gases 
Properties  of  Matter 
Impenetrability 

(4)  Impenetrability  of  Matter 
Malleability 

Ductility 

Brittleness 

Elasticity 

Flexibility 

Hardness 

Indestructibility  of  Matter 

Changes  in  Matter 

(5)  A  Chemical  Change  and  What  It  Means 

Elements  ^_ 

Direct  Union  of  Elements 

(6)  Union  of  Zinc  with  Sulphur 

(7)  Union  of  Magnesium  with  Oxygen 

Decomposition  or  Breaking  Up  of  a  Chemical  Compound 

(8)  Decomposition  of  Sodium  Thiosulphate 

(9)  Decomposition  of  Sugar 

Double  Decomposition  or  the  Exchange  of  Elements 

(10)  Action  of  Ferric  Ammonium  Sulphate  on  Calcium  Oxide 

(11)  Action  of  Aluminum  Sulphate  on  Strontium  Nitrate 
Substitution  or  the  Displacement  of  One  Element  by 
Another 

(12)  Action  of  Iron  on  Copper  Sulphate 

(13)  Action  of  Zinc  on  Copper  Sulphate 

(14)  Action  of  Magnesium  on  Copper  Sulphate 

(15)  Action  of  Zinc  on  Hydrochloric  Acid 

Air — Oxygen 


36  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Hydrogen 

Water  and  Water-of-Crystallization 

Testing  Water 

Acids,  Bases  and  Salts — Indicators 

Nitrogen  and  Ammonia — Ammonium  Hydroxide 

Sulphur  and  Hydrogen  Sulphide 

Oxides  and  Oxygen  Acids  of  Sulphur 

The  Insoluble  Sulphates 

The  Halogens — The  Chlorine  Family 

Poisonous  War  Gases — The  Gas  Mask 

Carbon — Carbonic  Acid — Carbonates — Combustion 

Explanation  of  the  Hand  Fire  Extinguisher 

Baking  Powder  in  Bread  Making 

Silicon  and  Silicates 

Glass  Making 
Hydraulic  Cements 
Ordinary  Clay 
Porcelain  Clay 

Boron  and  Borates 

Phosphorus  and  Phosphates 

The  Alkali  Metals — Sodium  and  Potassium 

The  Alkaline  Earth  Metals — Calcium,  Barium,  Strontium 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         37 
Strontium  and  the  Manufacture  of  Fireworks 

Aluminum — Zinc — Magnesium 

Testing  Metals  by  Their  Flame  Colors 

Alloys 

PART  II 

Organic  Chemistry  and  Its  Commercial  Application  to 
THE  Industries 

The  Soap  and  Glycerine  Industry 

The  Ink  Industry 

The  Paper  Industry 

The  Manufacturing  of  Gums,  Adhesives  and  Glues 

The  Tanning  or  Leather  Industry 

Fermentation  and  Ferments 

The  Manufacture  of  Paints  and  Water  Colors 

The  Starch  and  Sugar  Industry 

The  Dyeing  and  Textile  Industry 

The  Manufacture  of  Essential  Oils  and  Perfumes 

The  Chemistry  of  Foods 

Testing  Foods  for  Proteins 

Testing  Milk 


38  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Testing  Baking  Powders 

The  Chemistry  of  the  Body 

Chemistry  in  the  Home 

Removing  Stains  from  Clothing 

The  Chemistry  of  FertiHzers — Farming 

PART  III 

Electro-Chemistry  and  Its  Commercial  Applications 

The  Dry  Cell  and  How  it  is  Made 

How  the  Dry  Cell  Works — Chemical  Explanation 

The  Wet  Cell 

The  Storage  Battery 

Electrolysis 

List  of  Chemicals,  Formulae  and  Apparatus 

List  of  the  More  Common  Elements  with  Their  Symbols, 
Atomic  Weights  and  Valences 

To  return  now  to  the  Porter  Chemcraft,  it  must  also  be  pointed 
out  that  the  material  is  a  good  deal  more  readable  than  the  early 
Gilbert  set.  The  manual  contains  considerable  descriptive  and 
historical  matter  that  helps  the  boy  to  appreciate  the  significance 
of  what  he  is  doing.  The  following  quotations  are  typical  of  the 
manner  of  treatment — especially  in  the  earHer  portions  of  the 
manual : 

"Let  us  go  back  to  the  olden  days  when  the  human  race  was  still  in  a 
semi-savage  state  and  civilization  was  just  beginning  to  dawn  upon  the 
world.  Man  lived  in  a  primitive  manner,  taking  little  notice  of  his  sur- 
roundings, intent  only  upon  obtaining  food  and  protecting  himself  from 
others.  But  as  his  intelligence  developed  ...  it  was  not  long  until  he 
began  to  experiment  with  the  materials  around  him." 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         39 

"In  the  olden  days  people  were  very  superstitious ;  and  so  the  alchemists 
who  had  learned  to  bring  about  such  wonderful  changes  in  materials, 
came  to  be  regarded  as  wizards  or  magicians,  who  could  do  almost  any- 
thing. Now  the  great  desire  and  ambition  of  these  mediaeval  people  was 
to  become  as  rich  as  Solomon  and  to  live  to  be  as  old  as  Methuselah.  It 
was  quite  natural,  therefore,  that  the  efforts  of  the  alchemists  were  de- 
voted to  fruitless  attempts  to  change  the  baser  metals  such  as  iron,  copper 
and  lead  into  gold,  and  also  to  produce  the  'elixir  of  life,'  a  mythical  sub- 
stance which  would  prolong  their  lives. 

"About  the  time  that  Columbus  discovered  America  the  alchemists  gave 
up  their  search  for  the  'elixir  of  life'  and  abandoned  their  attempts  to 
change  the  baser  materials  into  gold,  and  began  to  devote  their  eflforts  to 
learning  about  the  materials  which  were  used  in  the  daily  life  of  the  peo- 
ple and  to  make  use  of  their  knowledge  to  improve  the  products  of  the 
industries  and  develop  new  materials." 

Unfortunately,  materials  of  this  type  does  not  pertain  through- 
out the  Chemcraft  Manual.  The  high  standard  of  the  first  25 
pages — in  the  matter  of  simplicity  of  style  and  interest — is  not 
adhered  to  in  150  pages  or  so  that  follow.  Nor  is  there  the  same 
care  of  presentation  or  of  detailed  directions.  The  author  of 
the  manual  has  apparently  experienced  what  so  many  writers  of 
texts  experience:  that  the  last  chapter  of  a  book  needs  just  as 
much  care  and  planning  as  the  first.  And  not  being  able  to  give 
this  time — due  to  business  stress — there  has  resulted  a  hasty  com- 
pilation of  materials  of  rather  inferior  quality. 

The  most  recent  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit  of  which  the  Table 
of  Contents  has  already  been  given,  is  of  course  modeled  very 
closely  after  the  Porter  set.  The  453  experiments  are  set  in  a 
frame-work  of  laws  and  principles  and  the  arrangement  is  even 
more  logical  than  in  the  Porter  set.  Before  being  permitted  to 
experiment  the  boy  is  introduced  to  27  terms  and  their  definitions. 
The  Hst  of  these  definitions  which  is  here  given  is  a  rather 
formidable  array — definitions  that  every  high  school  teacher  of 
chemistry  can  teach  successfully  only  in  a  year's  course  and  with 
liberal  drill: 

Acids  Chemical  Change 

Atom  Chemical  Compound 

Atomic  Weight  Chemical  Equation 

Base  Chemical  Affinity 

Chemistry  Decolorize 


40  After-School  Material  m  Science 

Deodorize  Mixture 

Dissociate  Molecule 

Electrolysis  Physical  Change 

Element  n      -  u  ^ 

^  Precipitate 

Evaporate 

Immerse  ^^^*^ 

l0n  Solution 

Law  of  Conservation  of  Matter  Symbol 
Law  of  Definite  Proportions       Valence 

These  definitions  are  followed  by  some  General  Directions 
which  are  more  or  less  practical  aids  to  the  would-be  experimenter, 
and  which  cover  such  topics  as  measuring  chemicals;  dissolving 
chemicals ;  heating  liquids  or  solids  in  test  tubes ;  use  of  the  test 
tube  rack,  stirring-rod,  test  tube  holder,  test  tube  brush,  and  gas- 
delivery  tube;  filtering;  gas-generating;  measuring  liquids  or 
solutions ;  grinding  or  mixing  substances ;  and  some  general  notes 
on  apparatus. 

Another  innovation  of  the  new  Gilbert  Chemistry  Outfit  is  the 
chapter  on  "Matter  in  Chemistry"  which  serves  as  a  preface  to 
the  study  of  chemistry  proper. 

The  whole  question  of  organization  of  materials;  manner  of 
presentation  and  sj>ecial  teaching  devices  would  be  of  great  im- 
portance and  deserve  more  space  than  has  been  devoted  to  it,  if 
organization  and  presentation  functioned  in  any  large  way  in  the 
activity  of  the  boy.  But  it  does  not.  As  will  be  shown  later, 
.  only  10%  of  the  boys  that  the  writer  has  had  an  opportunity  to 
observe  follow  the  manual  in  a  connected  way.  The  other  90% 
are  practically  oblivious  of  the  elaborate  effort  of  the  manuals  to 
erect  a  logical  structure. 

A  third  type  of  chemical  outfit  that  deserves  to  be  ranked  with 
the  two  already  described  is  St.  John*s  Fun  with  Chemistry.  The 
peculiar  significance  of  this  toy  lies  rather  in  its  failure  as  a 
commercial  undertaking  than  in  any  marked  contribution  to  this 
field  of  educational  endeavor.  St  John  was  a  pioneer  in  the 
movement  for  educational  toys.  As  far  back  as  1900  or  1901 
he  put  out  a  complete  series  of  outfits  on  scientific  subjects,  basing 
his  materials  on  his  experiences  with  boys  at  the  Browning  School 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         41 

— a  private  institution  in  which  he  served  as  instructor.     In  this 
respect  the  origin  of  the  *'Fun  With"  sets  was  rather  unique, 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  St.  John  toys : 

Fun  With  Magnetism. 
Fun  With  Electricity. 
Fun  With  Puzzles. 
Fun  With  Soap  Bubbles. 
Fun  With  Shadows. 
Fun  With  Photography. 
Fun  With  Chemistry. 
Fun  With  Telegraphy. 

As  nearly  as  one  can  make  out,  there  were  two  important 
reasons  for  the  financial  failure  of  the  toy :  poor  advertising  and 
cheapness  of  the  product.  Toy  manufacturers  twenty  years  ago 
suffered  from  the  conviction  that  a  toy  must  necessarily  be  a 
flimsy,  breakable,  temporary  affair.  Thus  it  was  that  the  entire 
St.  John  series  could  be  bought  for  $3.00;  which  even  when  we 
consider  the  greater  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar  at  that  time 
hardly  makes  possible  the  quality  and  workableness  demanded  by 
the  boy. 

In  spite  of  these  drawbacks  there  is  very  little  in  these  outfits 
that  is  inferior  to  the  present-day  outfit — when  we  consider  the 
aim  of  the  author,  the  type  of  materials  and  their  organization. 
In  fact  there  is  much  that  is  superior;  especially  from  the  point 
of  view  of  meeting  the  boy's  needs  in  a  boy  way.  It  is  strange 
that  the  teacher  should  be  the  one  to  ignore  completely  the  ''dignity 
of  education."  St.  John  isn't  at  all  anxious  to  point  out  at  every 
step  the  educational  possibilities  of  his  experiments;  nor  to  insert 
his  exercises  into  the  logical  frame-work  of  a  science.  In  his 
rather  unpretentious  introduction  he  points  out  that  "Chemistry  is 
one  of  the  most  practical  of  all  the  sciences,"  and  that  "the  simple 
experiments  contained  in  this  little  book  will  serve  as  a  start,  and 
the  boys  and  girls  who  perform  them  will  soon  see  that  they  can 
have  Fun  with  Chemistry  and  at  the  same  time  learn  a  great  deal 
about  combustion,  which  is  one  branch  of  cheipistry." 


42  After-School  Material  in  Science 

His  outfit  consisted  of  the  following  articles :  One  Book  of 
Instructions,  called  "Fun  with  Chemistry;"  1  Adjustable  Ring- 
stand,  including  Base,  Rod  Slide  with  Set-screw,  and  Wire  Ring; 
1  Wire  Arm ;  1  Large  Candle ;  1  Small  Candle ;  1  Metal  Box  with 
Cover ;  1  Test-tube  Wire ;  2  Test-tubes ;  1  Glass  Tube ;  Red  Litmus 
Paper;  Blue  Litmus  Paper;  1  Package  of  Sawdust  (No.  L)  ;  1 
Box  of  Wood  Ashes  (No.  2) ;  1  Package  of  Filter  Paper;  1  Paper 
Funnel;  1  Box  of  ParafiBn  (No.  3)  ;  1  Box  of  Slaked  Lime  (No. 
4) ;  1  Box  of  Sal  Ammoniac  (No.  5). 

The  following  is  his  Table  of  Contents : 

Chemistry — The  Outfit 
Experiments 

( 1 )  From  White  to  Black,  or  the  Phantom  Ship  —  Paper  — 
Carbon 

(2)  From  Black  to  White— Ashes 

(3)  Yellow  Tears  from  Paper — Vapors — Creosote  from  Paper — 
Lamp-lighters 

(4)  Smoke  Pearls — Soluble  Smoke 

(5)  An  ocean  of  smoke — heavy  gases 

(6)  A  tiny  whirlwind 

(7)  A  cascade  of  smoke 

(8)  Liquid  smoke — condensation  of  vapors 

(9)  Boiling  hot — ^the  water  bath 

(10)  From  liquid  to  solid  vapor — carbon  from  liquids 

(11)  An  explosion  in  a  teacup 

(12)  A  tiny  explosion  in  your  hand 

(13)  A  Gas  factory  in  a  test-tube — ^Gas 

(14)  Making  charcoal — Charcoal 

(15)  Minerals  in  Paper — Chemical  action 

( 16)  Flame  goes  over  a  bridge 

(17)  A  toboggan  slide  of  smoke — The  candle  as  a  Gas  Factory 

(18)  Fire  Goes  Through  a  Tube 

(19)  Fountains  of  Flame — Expansion  of  Heated  Gases 

(20)  Testing  for  an  Acid — Acids — Litmus  Paper 

(21)  Making  an  Acid  from  Wood — ^Wood-acid 

(22)  Testing  for  an  Alkali—Alkalies 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         43 

(23)  Making  Alkali    from    Wood   Ashes — Filtering — Alkali    in 
Ashes — Lye 

(24)  A  Chemical  Fight 

(25)  Through  Wall  of  Flame— Hollow  Flames 

(26)  An  Artificial  Gas  Well— The  Candle  Flame 

(27)  Liquid  Paraffin 

(28)  A  Candle  Without  a  Wick— Paraffin 

(29)  Cooled  Flames 

(30)  A  Lampblack  Factory — Carbon  in  Flame 

(31)  Steam   from  a   Flame — Products   of   Combustion — Water 
from  Combustion 

(32)  The  Death  of  a  Flame— Carbonic  Acid  Gas 

(33)  The  Flame  that  Committed  Suicide — Air  Currents 

(34)  Chemical  Soup — Lime — Chemical  Action. 

(35)  Making  Limewater — Milk  of  Lime — Limewater 

(36)  A  Baby  Skating-rink — Limestone  Ice 

(37)  Magic  Milk — A  Magic  Milk-shake — Carbon  Dioxide  and 
Limewater 

(38)  The  Wizard's  Breath— Animal  Heat 

(39)  A  Chemical  Curtain 

(40)  Tiny  Explosions  Produce  Gas — Effects  of  Explosions 

(41)  Scrambled  Chemicals — Chemical  Action  Between  Solids 

All  of  his  experiments  are  marked  by  a  high  degree  of  simplicity 
and  workableness.  The  picturesque  titles  neither  enhance  nor 
detract  from  the  appeal  that  they  make  to  boys.  And  the  direc- 
tions are  not  only  clear  but  they  show  the  teachers'  insight  into 
the  capabilities  of  young  folks.  The  exercises  themselves  are 
ingenious  bits  of  experimentation.  It  is  a  pity  that  these  sets  are 
not  now  being  manufactured;  so  that  they  could  compete  upon 
a  fair  basis  with  Gilbert's  and  Porter's."^  At  their  most  popular 
stage,  St.  John  sets  were  adopted  by  the  New  York  City  Board  of 
Education  as  standard  pieces  of  school  equipment  and  received 
the  Board's  recommendation  as  an  educational  toy. 

All  efforts  by  the  writer  to  learn  more  about  the  strange  history 
of  these  outfits  have  thus  far  been  met  with  failure.  No  one 
seems  to  know  the  whereabouts  of  St.  John  nor  to  know  much 

*The  author  has  just  learned  that  these  sets  have  again  been  put  on  the 
market. 


44  After-School  Material  in  Science 

about  his  aims,  ideals,  and  methods  of  work  except  that  the 
Browning  School  was  founded  on  the  idea  that  there  never  should 
be  more  than  five  pupils  to  a  class.  His  contribution  does  not, 
however,  affect  our  problem  in  any  large  way,  since  he  has  left 
the  field  clear  to  others.  And  it  is  the  materials  and  activities 
that  function  at  the  present  time  that  is  the  purpose  of  this  study. 

Next  in  order  of  importance  and  popularity  among  boys  are  the 
Magnetism  and  Electricity  Outfits.  In  this  field  Gilbert  is  prac- 
tically supreme.  The  Meccano  Company  is  at  the  present  time 
developing  its  own  Electric  Outfit  and  of  course  St-  John's  Fun 
With  Magnetism  and  Fun  With  Electricity  are  efforts  along  the 
same  line;  but  the  Gilbert  business  machinery  has  swept  its  own 
product  into  the  field  so  completely  that  it  is  practically  the  only 
one  worth  considering. 

Cooperating  with  Mr.  Gilbert  in  the  organization  of  the  mag- 
netic and  electrical  sets  is  Hugo  Kloysbrunn,  PhD,  University  of 
Vienna.  The  manual  divides  the  work  into  four  divisions :  Static 
Electricity,  Magnetism,  Current  Electricity,  and  Induction  Elec- 
tricity. The  boy  is  introduced  to  the  study  by  a  paragraph  on 
"What  is  Electricity?"  (The  answer  is, ''We  do  not  know.  We 
cannot  define  the  idea  electricity  but  we  can  turn  to  advantage 
the  phenomena  of  electricity.  We  can  produce  it  and  use  it  and 
master  this  mighty  force."  In  characteristic  Gilbert  style  the  boy 
is  told  at  the  outset  that  "to  understand  the  fundamentals  of  elec- 
tricity, you  must  start  with  the  first  elements  and  advance  step  by 
step."  There  are,  however,  two  departures  from  the  usual 
Gilbert  product.  First,  the  emphasis  is  decidedly  upon  the  "fun- 
damentals of  electricity,"  that  is,  upon  the  building  up  of  sound 
concepts  of  the  science  of  electricity  rather  than  upon  "fun." 
And  secondly,  the  usual  care  has  not  been  taken  to  provide  in  the 
outfit  all  the  materials  necessary  to  perform  the  experiments 
successfully.  The  boy  is  asked  to  make  use  of  a  great  many 
materials  that  Gilbert  assumes  are  always  available.  This  assump- 
tion is  not  warranted. 

Three  grades  of  Electrical  Outfits  are  sold.  One  for  $2.50, 
one  for  $7.50  and  one  for  $10.00;  with  a  corresponding  gradation 
in  the  amount  of  materials  supplied  and  number  of  experiments 
possible.  The  major  portion  of  the  materials  is  in  each  grade  or 
set  devoted  to  the  parts  of  a  dissected  electric  motor. 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         45 

The  following  lists  of  experiments  will  serve  to  show  both  the 
content  and  method  of  treatment  in  Gilbert's  text-book;  for  that 
is  what  it  virtually  is : 

I.     Frictional  Electricity 

1.  Hard  Rubber  Electricity 

2.  Glass  Electricity 

(explanation  of  above  experiments  and  some  historical  mate- 
rial in  reference  to  early  discovery  of   frictional  electricity) 

3.  Law  of  Attraction 

4.  Paper  Electricity 

5.  Law  of  Repulsion 

6.  The  Carbon  Pendulum 

7.  Charging  by  Contact 

8.  Carbon  "Flies'* 

9.  Electric  Spider 

10.  Unlike  Electricities 

(Development  of  idea  "positive  and  negative"  and  a  recapitula- 
tion of  the  three  fundamental  laws,  which  are  stated  thus; 

1.  Charges  of  the  same  kind  of  electricity  repel  each  other 

2.  Charges  of  unlike  kinds  of  electricity  attract  each  other 

3.  Either  kind  of  electricity  attracts,  and  is  attracted  by  a 
neutral  body.) 

11.  Conductors  and  Insulators 

12.  Potential  of  Electricity  (E.M.F.) 
13u  The  Electrophorus 

14.  How  to  Use  the  Electrophorus 

15.  Equal  Potentials 

16.  Disruptive  Charges 

17.  Silent  Discharging 

18.  Electric  Clapper 

19.  Electric  Density 

IL    Electrification  by  Induction 

20.  Polarization  by  Induction 

21.  Theory  of  Neutrality 

22.  Theory  of  Induction 

22).  Bound  and  Free  Electricity 

24.  Charging  by  Induction 

25.  Dielectrics 

26.  Theory  of  the  Electrophorus 

27.  Conductive  Bodies 

28.  Condenser 

29.  Theory  of  Condensers 

30.  Discharging  the  Condenser 

31.  Discharges 

32.  The  Leyden  Jar 


46  After-School  Material  in  Science 

ZZ.  Electroscope 

34.  Gold-Leaf  Electroscope 

35.  Proof  Plane 

Z6.  Determining  the  Electric  Charge 

27.  Electric  Machines 

ZS>.  How  the  Plate  Machine  Works 

39.  Insulating  Stool 

40.  Summary  of  Electrostatic  effects 

(a)  Mechanical  effects 

(b)  Chemical  effects 

(c)  Heating  effects 

(d)  Optical  effects 

(e)  Physiological  effects 
III.   Atmospheric  Electricity 

41.  Benjamin  Franklin's  Experiment 

42.  Potential  of  Lightning 

43.  Thunder 

44.  Luminous  Phenomena 

(a)  Heat  Lightning 

(b)  St.  Elmo's  Fire 
(p)  The  Aurora 

45.  Lightning  Rods 

The  last  five  experiments  are  not  experiments  that  the  boy  can 
do  himself.  They  are  descriptive  statements.  The  whole  45 
experiments  are  interspersed  with  a  liberal  amount  of  descriptive 
matter ;  some  of  it  taken  almost  bodily  from  physics  text  books. 

The  section  on  Magnetism  is  rather  meagerly  treated.  This 
defect  has  been  recognized  by  Gilbert ;  and  he  has  quite  recently 
produced  a  further  development  of  this  subject,  which  will  be 
described  briefly  later  on. 

The  materials  supplied  consist  of  a  few  bar-magnets,  horse- 
shoe magnets,  iron  filings,  wire,  a  compass  and  some  needles. 

In  much  the  same  manner  the  manual  develops  the  concepts  and 
laws  of  Current  Electricity.  Practically  no  attention  is  given  to 
detailed  directions  for  performing  experiments. 

CURRENT  ELECTRICITY 

1.  Flowing  Electricity  or  "Current"  Explained 

2.  Volts,  Amperes,  Ohms 

3.  Units  of  Measurement  Defined 

4.  How  Current  is  Generated 

(a)  Chemically 

(b)  Mechanically 

(c)  Thermally 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         47 

5.  Galvani's  Frog  Experiment 

6.  The  Voltaic  Pile 

7.  Simple  Voltaic  Cell 

8.  Galvanic  Battery 

9.  Chemical  Action  Explained 

10.  Polarization  Explained 

11.  Kinds  of  Cells 

12.  Forms  of  Cells 

13.  The  Dry  Cell 

14.  About  Dry  Cells 

15.  Ohm's  Law 

16.  Internal  Resistance 

17.  Connecting  in  Series 

18.  Connecting  in  Parallel 

19.  Keys  and  Push  Buttons 

20.  Switches 

21.  Conductors  and  Insulators 

22.  A  List  of  Conductors 

23.  Insulators 

24.  Divided  Circuits 

25.  Laws  of  Resistance 

26.  Rheostat 

27.  Effects  of  the  Current 

(a)  Thermal  Effects 

(b)  Chemical  Effects 

(c)  Physiological  Effects 

(d)  Magnetic  Effects 

28.  Electric  Light 

29.  The  Carbon  Lamp 

30.  Metal  Filament  Lamp 

31.  Nitrogen  Lamps 

32.  The  Electric  Arc 

33.  Fuses 

34.  Replacing  Fuses 

35.  Systems  of  Electric  Lighting 

36.  Wire  Connections 
Z7.  Different  Splices 

38.  Experiments  With  Your  Lighting  Outfit 

39.  Chemical  Effects 

40.  Decomposition  of  Water 

41.  Anode:    Kathode 

42.  Electroplating 

43.  Physiological  Effects 

44.  Lines  of  Force 

45.  Deflection  of  the  Magnetic  Needle 

46.  The  Hand  Rule 


48  After-School  Material  in  Science 

47.  Galvanometer 

48.  Astatic  Galvanometer 

49.  Apparatus  For  Electric  Measurement 

50.  The  Solenoid 

51.  The  Electromagnet 

52.  The  Electro  Horseshoe  Magnet 

53.  Lifting  Magnet 

54.  The  Electric  Bell 

55.  How  the  Bell  Works 

56.  Wiring  of  Bells 

57.  Telegraphy 

58.  Morse's  Invention 

59.  The  Telegraphic  Code 

60.  Electric  Accidents 

61.  What  To  Do  For  Electric  Shocks 

62.  Treatment  After  Respiration  Begins 

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  INDUCTION 

63.  Theory  of  Induction 

64.  Faraday's  Discovery 

65.  Induction  Through  Magnets 

66.  Induction  Through  Currents 

67.  Alternating  Currents 

6S.  Primary  and  Secondary  Coils  and  Currents 

69.  Theory  of  Induction 

70.  Ruhmkoff's  Induction  Coils 

71.  How  to  Build  a  Ruhmkoff  Coil 

72.  How  the  Induction  Coil  Works 

73.  Experiments  With  Induction  Coils 

74.  Wireless  Telegraphy 

75.  X-Rays 

76.  Telephony 

77.  Transmission  of  Electrical  Current 

78.  Transformer 

79.  The  Gilbert  Transformer 

80.  Distribution  of  Current 

81.  The  Dynamo 

82.  Power  Stations 

83.  The  Gilbert  Generator 

84.  Simple  Electric  Motors 

85.  Theory  of  the  Electric  Motor 

86.  The  Electric  Motor 

87.  The  Field  Magnet 

88.  The  Armature 

89.  How  to  Assemble  the  Motor 

90.  The  Power  of  the  Motor 

91.  Reverse  Switch 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described  49 

92.  How  to  Connect  the  Reverse  Switch 

93.  Uses  of  the  Electric  Motor 

94.  Gear  Box 

95.  How  to  Use  the  Gearing 

In  practically  two-thirds  of  the  95  sections  above  listed,  the 
boy  needs  the  use  of  special  pieces  of  apparatus  which  the  outfit 
does  not  supply.  These  the  Gilbert  Company  will  sell  as  acces- 
sories. Examples  of  this  type  of  equipment  are  the  motors,  gen- 
erators, bells,  transformers,  and  rheostats,  all  of  which  the  com- 
pany manufactures  so  that  they  can  be  adapted  to  the  large  vari- 
ety of  Gilbert  toys. 

The  appeal  of  Gilbert's  Electrical  Outfit  is  decidedly  an  appeal 
to  the  older  and  the  more  capable  boy.  The  average  boy  finds 
himself  handicapped  at  every  turn;  and  as  a  rule  is  hopelessly 
discouraged.  St.  John's  sets,  on  the  other  hand,  are  everything 
which  the  Gilbert  sets  are  not.  Fun  With  Magnetism  and  Fun 
With  Electricity  are  a  collection  of  120  experiments  using  the 
simplest  pieces  of  apparatus,  and  described  so  clearly  that  boys 
of  10  have  been  able  to  follow  them  with  ease.  St.  John  pos- 
sessed a  decided  genius  for  presenting  a  subject  simply  and 
entertainingly.  His  subjects  for  experiments  are  quite  as  pic- 
t\iresque  as  are  his  chemical  experiments.  The  "fun"  element  is 
the  predominating  mood  of  all  of  St.  John's  materials.  Again, 
one  has  a  feeling  of  disappointment  that  the  St.  John  outfit  is  not 
once  more  launched  to  compete  with  the  Gilbert.  The  two  oppos- 
ing points  of  view  could  then  receive  a  conclusive  test. 

The  development  of  the  Meccano  Electro  Outfit  is  proceeding 
along  different  lines.  The  aim  is  to  "electrify"  Meccano,  by  add- 
ing new  standard  and  interchangeable  parts  that  can  be  absorbed 
by  the  present  highly  developed  mechanical  set. 

In  addition  to  Mechanical,  Electrical,  and  Chemical  Outfits,  a 
few  other  types  of  outfits  are  worthy  of  mention.  These  are 
usually  designed  to  satisfy  one  type  of  interest  and  do  not  pos- 
sess the  characteristic  of  almost  infinite  flexibility  and  possibilit>' 
that  the  other  three  types  possess.  The  more  important  sets  of 
this  type  are: 

1.  The  Telegraph  Set 

2.  The  Phono-Set 

3.  The  Wireless  Set 


50  After-School  Material  in  Science 

4.  The  Railroad  Set 

5.  The  Weather  Bureau  Outfit 

6.  The  Hydraulic  and  Pneumatic  Engineering  Set 

7.  The  Light  Experiments  Engineering  Set 

8.  The  Sound  Experiments  Set 

9.  The  Heat  Experiments  Set 

10.  The  Civil  Engineering  Set 

11.  The  Microscopy  Set 

12.  The  Photography  Set 

13.  The  Mineralogy  Set 

14.  The  Miniature  Machinery  Outfit 

15.  The  Glass  Blowing  Outfit 

Although  some  of  these  sets  lack  the  wide  range  of  activity 
that  is  characteristic  of  the  more  successful  "outfits,"  they  meet 
the  need  in  a  remarkable  way  of  the  individual  who  is  given  to 
"hobbies"  and  to  concentration  on  one  line  of  work. 

The  Telegraph  Set  consists  of  a  box  of  simple  materials  (cost- 
ing $2.00)  that  the  boy  can  put  together  and  operate  as  a  tele- 
graph. The  manual  that  goes  with  the  set  is  a  24-page  booklet 
wTitten  by  J.  S.  Newman,  author  of  "Applied  Science  and 
Mechanics  for  Boys."  The  following  are  some  of  the  topics 
treated : 

1.  History  and  Development  of  the  Telegraph 

2.  The  Morse  Code 

3.  Technique  of  the  Telegraph  Operator 

4.  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Telegraph  Connections 

5.  Operating  the  Telegraph 

6.  Commercial  Telegraphy 

7.  Batteries 

The  Phono  Set  is  a  $5.00  outfit  organized  and  developed  by 
J.  S.  Newman  for  the  Gilbert  Company.  The  feature  of  this  set 
is  the  very  clear  and  well-written  manual.  The  reeciver,  the 
transmitter,  the  underlying  principles  in  sound  and  electricity,  are 
all  explained  in  a  simple  way  and  with  a  great  many  striking  dia- 
grams.   The  following  is  an  outline  of  what  the  set  covers : 

1.  Historical  sketch  of  A.  G.  Bell  and  his  invention 

2.  The  Receiver 

3.  The  Transmitter 

4.  Sound 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described  51 

5.  The  Simple  Telephone 

6.  How  the  telephone  operates 

7.  The  commercial  telephone 

8.  How  to  assemble  the  phono-set 

9.  Making  Connections 

10.  Hints 

11.  Ringing  Systems  and  long  distance  lines 

12.  Outdoor  lines-^splices 

The  Wireless  Set  is  one  of  the  most  popular  science  toys ;  and 
chiefly  because  it  makes  possible  the  sending  and  receiving  of 
actual  messages.  But  it  requires  an  equipment  that  is  above  the 
average  in  cost  and  an  ability  on  the  part  of  the  boy  that  borders 
on  the  exceptional.  Hundreds  of  wireless  clubs  have  been 
formed  by  teachers,  due  to  the  enthusiasm  of  a  few  able  indi- 
viduals who  have  created  a  seeming  demand  for  it.  The  initial 
interest  is  in  most  cases  present — they  all  want  the  experience  of 
catching  a  message  from  a  ship  at  sea — ^but  the  equipment  and 
ability  exist  with  the  few.  The  result  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
is  a  gradual  decrease  of  interest  and  final  failure.  The  individuals 
who  were  the  leading  spirits  go  right  on,  of  course,  and  develop 
a  surprising  efficiency.  There  exist  at  the  present  time  several 
leagues  or  associations  of  amateur  radio  experimenters.  During 
the  war  their  activities  were  prohibited ;  but  in  the  last  two  years 
their  number  has  been  continually  on  the  increase.  Especially 
with  the  coming  of  the  cheap  audion  bulb  which  makes  possible 
radio  telephony  over  long  distances,  has  activity  with  "wireless" 
been  very  great.  But  always  this  activity  is  of  the  concentrated 
kind — where  a  boy  devotes  all  his  play  time  to  it  and  adopts  it  as 
a  hobby  which  often  lasts  for  six  years  or  more. 

The  Wireless  Outfit  is,  of  course,  among  the  Gilbert  products. 
For  $5.00  or  $10.00  Gilbert  attempts  to  furnish  a  complete  send- 
ing or  a  complete  receiving  set  of  instruments.  Unfortunately, 
his  outfit  is  of  low  quality  and  has  been  proved,  in  the  main, 
unworkable.  Whether  his  latest  improvement  will  solve  the 
problem  or  not  of  furnishing  a  comparatively  inexpensive  set 
that  will  work  remains  to  be  seen.*     Until  then  boys  will  con- 


*The  present  Gilbert  Wireless  Sets  are  more  expensive  pieces  of  appa- 
ratus, costing  anywhere  from  $15  to  $48  per  set. 


52  After-School  Material  in  Science 

tinue  as  in  the  past,  to  buy  their  wireless  parts  one  by  one  in 
various  stores,  often  picking  up  second-hand  commercial  pieces 
of  apparatus  that  satisfy  their  needs  to  perfection. 

The  Gilbert  Wireless  Manual,  written  by  an  expert  radio  engi- 
neer, is  a  small  text-book  on  ''wireless."  The  treatment  of  the 
subject  is  not  simple  enough  for  the  junior  high  school  boy,  but 
extremely  helpful  to  high  school  seniors  and  college  freshmen. 
As  with  others  of  Gilbert's  text  manuals,  the  primary  reaction  of 
the  boy  is  to  ignore  the  text  and  strive  for  practical  results.  If 
he  is  successful  to  some  degree,  thereby  maintaining  his  interest, 
he  does,  as  he  gets  older,  react  more  definitely  to  the  theoretical 
principles  of  radio  engineering.  In  the  case  of  the  Gilbert  Set, 
the  unworkable  features  of  the  apparatus  have  made  the  text 
worse  than  useless. 

The  Railroad  Outfit  is  usually  sold  in  two  forms :  the  "spring" 
engine  and  the  "electric"  engine.  The  latter  type  is  not  only 
more  popular,  but  better  educationally.  The  track  for  the  rail- 
road is  supplied  in  segments,  the  boy  being  able  to  extend  his 
line  indefinitely  and  around  as  many  curves  and  turns  as  he 
chooses.  Miniature  railway  switches  are  supplied;  and  with 
these  he  can  switch  the  train  at  will.  Reversing  switches  permit 
of  turning  the  train  back  on  its  path,  and  small  block  signals  can 
be  wired  to  add  a  final  realistic  touch  to  the  toy.  The  chief  fea- 
ture of  the  outfit  is  its  close  parallel  to  the  subways  and  trolley 
lines  of  modern  life.  Though  the  number  of  experimental  pos- 
sibilities with  the  railroad  is  not  very  large  in  comparison  with 
other  "outfits,"  it  cannot  be  classed  as  a  "specific"  toy.  The 
boy's  chief  source  of  interest  in  the  railroad  is  to  experiment 
with  various  speeds,  various  loads,  various  curves  and  various 
grades  of  incline.  The  problem  in  wiring,  though  not  always  an 
easy  one,  especially  in  the  matter  of  installing  the  reverse-switch 
and  the  system  of  signals,  is  productive  of  a  great  deal  of  eflfort, 
study,  application  and  enthusiasm.  The  outfit,  too,  is  rich  in 
physical  and  mechanical  experiences,  such  as  the  eflfect  of  fric- 
tion, overcoming  inertia,  centrifugal  force,  principle  of  work, 
etc.,  etc. 

The  most  recent  development  in  science  outfits  for  hoys  have 
been  in  the  market  for  but  one  year.  In  many  cases  they  repre- 
sent the  final  result  of  the  years  of  experimenting;  but  many  of 


The  Materials  and  Actiznties  Listed  and  Described         53 

the  sets  are  new  ventures  in  the  field.  Though  the  experimental 
phase  of  this  study  does  not  deal  directly  with  these  newer  sets 
(not  having  been  sold  in  sufficient  quantities  for  my  boys  to 
have  them),  it  will  be  worth  while  to  devote  some  space  in  brief 
description. 

MAGNETIC  FUN  AND  FACTS 

The  materials  supplied  are  in  two  sets:  one  selHng  for  $3.75 
and  another  for  $10.00.  As  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tion, the  equipment  consists  of  the  usual  apparatus  used  to  illus- 
trate the  fundamental  principles  of  magnetism.  With  the  set 
goes  a  well-written  and  scientifically  accurate  manual  possessing 
also  these  characteristics  in  addition: 

(a)  Clearness  and  simplicity  of  exposition 

(b)  Wealth  of  illustration 

(c)  Historical  description 

(d)  Workable  experiments 

(e)  Careful  gradation  from  simple  to  more  complex 

In  a  word,  this  manual  is  one  of  the  best  pieces  of  work  yet 
done  by  Gilbert.    The  following  is  the  Table  of  Contents: 

CHAPTER      I.  A  SEA  FOG 

The  compass — Polarity— Where  magnetism  is — Kinds 
of  magnets — Magnetic  induction — Terrestrial  induc- 
tion— Methods  of  making  magnets — Heat  and  magne- 
tism 

CHAPTER    II.  ELECTRO-MAGNETISM 

Magnetic  force  about  a  wire — Force  in  the  easiest 
magnetic  path — Magnetic  motor 

CHAPTER  HI.  ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  INDUCTION 
Magnetic  saturation 

CHAPTER  IV.  MAGNETIC  TOYS  AND  TRICKS 

Magnet  tight-rope  walker — Magic  pencil — Magnetic 
navy — Magnetic  jack-straws — Magic  cork — Magnetic 
vibration — Recorder — Magnetic  top — Sliding  trick- 
Wireless  pup — Small  motor — Magnetic  gun — ^A  regis- 
tering wind — Vane — Hanging  a  ring  or  a  key  on  a 
picture — Magnetic  fingers — ^How  to  de-magnetize  your 
watch 


54  •  After-School  Material  in  Science 

CHAPTER  V.  HOW  TO  MAKE  MAGNETS 

Permanent  magnets — Horseshoe  magnets — Electro- 
magnet design— Electric  units— Units  of  power— Short- 
circuits — Ground — General  instructions  for  connec- 
tions— Design  of  an  electro-magnet — Moving  core 
magnets. 


LIGHT  EXPERIMENTS 

The  aim  of  this  set  is  expressed  in  the  following  excerpt  from 
the  Introduction:  "What  is  light?  Where  does  it  come  from? 
Where  does  it  go  to  ?  What  does  it  mean  to  us  ?  Those  are  the 
questions  which  would  stump  you  if  you  had  to  answer  them. 
You  probably  don't  know  because  you  never  thought  much  about 
it.  But  you,  as  well  as  every  other  boy,  should  understand  more 
about  light.  You  should  know  how  it  affects  our  everyday  life. 
.  ,  .  And  then  this  set  will  tell  you  how  to  give  shadow  shows 
and  exhibitions  that  will  amuse  your  friends.  While  you  play 
with  this  outfit,  you  will  learn  about  the  telescope,  opera-glasses, 
microscope,  moving  pictures  and  many  other  important  instru- 
ments. You  will  learn,  too,  why  eye-glasses  improve  the  sight 
.  .  .  and  there's  a  pile  of  fun  in  every  experiment  of  the  out- 
fit." 

The  set  sells  for  $15.00,  and  furnishes  material  which  makes 
possible  about  132  experiments  and  stunts.  The  manual  is 
arranged  by  C.  J.  Lynde,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Physics,  MacDon- 
ald  College,  Quebec,  and  author  of  "Lynde's  Household  Physics." 
As  was  the  case  with  Magnetic  Fun  and  Facts,  the  organization 
of  the  manual  is  psychological  and  pedagogical.  The  procedure 
is  not  only  from  the  simple  to  the  complex ;  but  there  is  a  definite 
preparation  made  for  each  large  law  of  the  science  of  light  before 
it  is  presented  to  the  boy.  The  wealth  of  experiment,  developed 
in  an  appealing  manner,  gives  the  boy  certain  experiences  with 
natural  phenomena  which  he  never  could  obtain  in  the  average 
laboratory  course  and  which  make  him  far  better  able  to  grasp 
and  appreciate  the  laws  of  light.  For  future  reference,  portions 
of  this  type  of  development  of  subject  miatter  will  here  be 
recorded : 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         55 

1.  Fun  with  bright  sunlight 

2.  To  make  your  dark-room 

3.  To  make  a  dark  box 

4.  Something  about  light 

5.  Fun  at  night 

6.  Intensity  of  light 

7.  Shadows — Shadow  entertainments 

8.  Reflection  of  Light 

9.  Fun  with  Sunlight 

10.  Fun  by  day  or  night  with  one  mirror 

11.  Why  the  image  is  as  far  behind  the  mirror  as  the  object  is  in  front 

12.  Experimental  Magic 

13.  The  "why"  of  the  Periscope 

14.  Illusions 

15.  Fun  with  the  curved  mirror 

16.  The  "why"  of  the  curved  mirror 

17.  Refraction  of  light 

18.  More  fun  with  sunlight 

19.  Refraction  of  spherical  waves 

20.  More  fun  by  day  or  night 

21.  Atmospheric  Refraction — Mirages 

22.  Still  more  fun  with  sunlight 

23.  Why  objects  are  colored 

24.  Complementary  colors — Mixing  paints 

25.  What  is  in  the  sun  and  stars 

26.  The  spectroscope 

27.  The  "why"  of  it,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

SOUND  EXPERIMENTS 

"My  sole  aim  in  getting  out  this  set,"  says  Gilbert,  "is  to  bring 
the  Science  of  Sound  down  to  your  understanding  and  have  the 
kind  of  fun  I  liked  when  I  was  a  boy.  It  may  not  make  you 
the  smartest  boy  in  your  class;  but  it  will  teach  you  a  lot  of 
things  that  perhaps  the  smartest  boy  in  school  does  not  know." 

The  set  sells  for  $7.50,  and  furnishes  material  for  42  experi- 
ments. The  organization  of  the  manual  attempts  to  follow  the 
two  previously  described,  but  does  not  quite  reach  their  degree 
of  excellence. 

HYDRAULIC  ENGINEERING 

In  this  set  there  are  about  two  dozen  different  trinkets — all 
simple,  inexpensive  and  easily  replaceable.  Though  the  cost  is 
$10.00,  a  goodly  portion  must  be  for  the  manual,  which  is  the 


56  After-School  Material  in  Science 

largest  and  finest  compilation  of  experiments  with  water  and  air 
ever  made.  From  the  accompanying  list  of  experiments,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  manual  is  virtually  a  combination  of  laboratory 
guide  and  text-book. 

1.  Water  Supply 

Experiments,  such  as 

(a)  Making  and  operating  a  city  water  supply  system 

(b)  Showing  how  water  is  brought  from  a  well,  etc. 
Game  No.  1— A  Naval  Battle 

2.  Pneumatic  Tank  System  of  Water  Supply 

Two  experiments,  and 
Game  No.  2 — Rapid  Fire  Water  Gun 

3.  Water  and  Air 

Two  experiments 
Game  No.  3 — Trench  Gun 
Game  No.  4— rHeight  and  Distance  Contest 
Game  No.  5 — Pop  Gun 

4.  The  Siphon 

— How  the  siphon  is  used  in  water  supply  systems 

— How  to  start  a  large  siphon 

— ^^Other  uses  of  the  siphon 

— Velocity  of  flow 

— Other  siphons 

— How  to  start  a  small  siphon 

— An  enclosed  fountain 

5.  Atmospheric  Pressure 

6.  The  "Why"  of  the  Siphon 

— Pumps 

—Game  No.  6— Water  Gun  Shooting 

—Game  No.  7— Big  Gun  Battle 

—Game  No.  8— Machine  Gun  Battle 

—Game  No.  9— The  Diablo  Whistle 

— rLift  Pump 

— Force  Pump  Contest — Game  No.  10 

7.  Hydraulic  Appliances 

— Pascal's  Law 

— Hydraulic  Press 

— Hydraulic  Elevator 

— Canal  Locks 

— Pressure  exerted  by  water 

— Hydrostatic  paradox 

— Explanation  and  calculations 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         57 

8.  Pressure  Under  Water 

— Depth  Bomb,  Torpedo,  Submarine 

— Buoyancy 

— Law  of  Archimedes 

— Raising  Sunken  Ships 

— Floating  Dry  Dock 

9.  Running  Water 

— Friction 

— Nozzles 

— Velocity  of  Flow 

— Air  locks 

PNEUMATIC  ENGINEERING 

1.  Atmospheric  Pressure 

— Barometer 

— How  airmen  know  their  altitude 

— Altitude  Gauge 

— Water  Barometer  (5  experiments) 

— Air  Lift-Pumps 

— Laws  of  Pascal  and  Archimedes 

— Balloons 

2.  Compressed  and  Expanded  Gases 

— Boyle's  Law 

— Air  Brake 

— Flame  Thrower 

— Fire  Extinguisher 

— Air  Pump 

— Bicycle  Pump 

— Air  Compressor 

— Sand  Blast 

— Pneumatic  Paint  Brush 

—Diving  Bell 

— Pneumatic  Caissons 

WEATHER  BUREAU  OUTFIT.  This  set  develops  the  sci- 
ence of  meteorology  in  a  series  of  experiments  that  the  boy  can 
easily  perform  with  the  material  supplied  him.  The  various  in- 
struments used  in  making  weather  forecasts,  the  making  of 
weather  maps,  and  a  general  study  of  atmospheric  conditions  and 
the  laws  according  to  which  these  conditions  change,  are  the  fea- 
tures of  this  set. 

In  this  outfit  and  in  those  that  follow  it,  as  also  in  some  of 
those  already  described,  Gilbert  shows  an  increasing  tendency  to 
omit  the  appeal  to  "magic,"  "fun"  and  "sport."  Although  he 
introduces  a  great  many  sources  of  entertainment,  this  entertain- 
ment comes  from  what  might  be  called  "purposeful  activity." 


58  After-School  Material  in  Science 

MINERALOGY  OUTFIT.  This  set  represents  a  new  line 
of  advance  in  the  field  of  science  toys.  William  J.  Horn  is 
responsible  for  the  working  out  of  this  outfit,  which,  according 
to  the  manual,  deals  with  the  following: 

I.    Chemical  Properties  of  Minerals 
II.     Physical  Properties  of  Minerals 
III.    Description  of  Minerals  and  Means  of  Identification 

(a)  Minerals  of  Economic  Importance 

(b)  Important  Rock  Making  Materials 

Eighteen  different  minerals  are  supplied  with  the  outfit,  and 
the  boy  is  directed  to  experiment  with  and  learn  to  recognize 
each  one. 

In  a  similar  manner  sets  and  manuals  have  been  worked  out 
on  the  following  subjects: 

Heat  Experiments 

Surveying 

Machine  Design 

Glass  Blowing 

Through  the  Telescope 

Through  the  Microscope 

Signal  Engineering 

Soldering 

Tin  Can  Toys 

Carpentry 

and  The  Magic  Series 

II.  (b)  SPECIFIC  TOYS  differ  from  the  outfits  in  that 
they  are  built  for  one  purpose  only.  In  almost  every  case  they 
permit  of  no  other  use  than  the  one  they  are  made  for:  taxing 
the  ingenuity  of  the  boy  to  adapt  them  to  his  ever-changing  needs, 
and  ending  in  either  total  ruin  or  disuse.  The  place  of  these 
toys  in  the  play  life  of  the  boy  is  discussed  in  a  subsequent  chap- 
ter. With  the  exception  of  the  camera,  electric  motor,  batteries 
and  magic  lantern,  they  provide  for  very  transient  interests  and 
no  far-reaching  activity.    A  partial  list  of  such  toys  is  here  given : 

1.  Steam  Engine 

2.  Fire  Engine 

3.  Electric  Motor 

4.  Dynamo 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described  59 


5. 

Magic  T,antem 

6. 

Moving  Picture  Machine 

7. 

Spring  Motor  Toys 

8. 

"Tank" 

9. 

Shocking  Machine 

10. 

Aeroplane 

11. 

Submarine 

12. 

Phonograph 

13. 

Batteries 

14. 

Camera 

15. 

Rubberband  Motors 

16. 

Battleship 

17. 

Piedometer,  etc.,  etc. 

11.     SCIENCE  READING  MATERIALS 
(a)  Popular  Science  Books 

There  is  a  type  of  science  book  which  boys  read  as  they  do 
novels.  Such  books  were  very  much  more  in  vogue  a  few  gen- 
erations ago  than  they  are  today;  and  the  better  ones  are  still  to 
this  day  among  the  most  popular.  Jules  Verne  is  an  example 
of  the  highly  imaginative  type  of  science  story  writer,  and  Sir 
E.  Ray  Lankester's  "Science  From  an  Easy  Chair"  is  an  example 
of  the  "science  reader"  type  of  book.  In  recent  years  there  have 
been  many  attempts  along  this  line.  Very  few  of  the  books, 
however,  possess,  in  addition  to  their  wealth  of  science  material, 
the  literary  merit  which  marks  a  book  as  being  popular  after- 
school  material,  read  for  its  own  sake.  In  the  following  list  the 
needs  of  the  boy  interested  in  science  are  met;  not  as  a  school 
assignment,  but  as  an  extra-curricular  activity.  There  may  be 
other  books  than  are  here  listed;  and  each  month  a  new  book 
appears.  The  ones  listed  are  the  ones  that  comprise  the  Science 
Club  library*  and  have  been  studied  by  the  writer : 


Book  Author  Publisher 

1.  Wonder  Book  of  Light  E.  J.  Houston  F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co. 

2.  Wonder  Book  of  Magnetism  E.  J.  Houston  F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co. 

3.  Wonder  Book  of  the  Atmosphere  E.  J.  Houston  F.  A  Stokes  &  Co. 

4.  How  It  Works  A.  Williams  T.  Nelson  &  Sons 

5.  How  It  Is  Made  A.  Williams  T.  Nelson  &  Sons 

6.  How  It  Is  Done  A.  Williams  T.  Nelson  &  Sons 

♦The  Science  Club  is  described  in  Chapter  9. 


Author 

Publisher 

Lippincott 

Funk  &  Wagnalls 

Maule 

Doubleday-Page 

Clarke 

F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co. 

Pepper 

E.  P.  Button  &  Co. 

F.  A.  Talbot 

Heinemann 

Heinemann 

Baker 

McClure 

Baker 

McClure 

Morgan 

Allyn  Bacon 

Goldsmith 

Sully 

Adams 

Harpers 

Shafer 

Harpers 

F.  A.  Collins 

60  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Book 

7.  The  Romance  Series  (12  books) 

8.  The  "All  About"  Series  (6  books) 

9.  Boys'  Book  of  New  Inventions 

10.  Boys'  Book  of  Modern  Marvels 

11.  Boys'  Play  Book  of  Science 

12.  Submarines 

13.  Modern  Chemistry  &  Its  Wonders 

14.  Boys'  First  Book  of  Inventions 

15.  Boys'  Second  Book  of  Inventions 

16.  The  Boy  Electrician 

17.  "I  Wonder  Why?" 

18.  Harpers'  Electricity  Book  for  Boys 

19.  Harpers'  Everyday  Electricity 

20.  Books  by 

The  greatest  amount  of  after-school  reading  is  done  in  con- 
nection with  experiments  and  other  practical  work. 

(b)  Popular  Science  Magazines 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  popular  boy  magazines  that 
feature  science: 

1.  Popular  Science  Monthly 

2.  Popular  Mechanics 

3.  Science  and  Invention 

4.  Illustrated  World 

5.  Scientific  American 

6.  Every-day  Engineering 

7.  Boys*  Life 

8.  The  American  Boy 

9.  Saint  Nicholas 

10.    Youth's  Companion 

Many  of  these  magazines  encourage  boy  correspondents, 
answer  questions,  suggest  experiments  and  carry  on  competitions. 
The  magazines  are  practically  the  only  extra-curricular  activity 
that  have  thus  far  been  applied  to  or  correlated  with  curricular 
work.  The  Popular  Science  Monthly  was  the  first  to  recognize 
the  use  to  which  these  magazines  could  be  put  in  the  school  sci- 
ence work  and  has  been  publishing  for  the  last  five  years  a  Teach- 
ers* Service  Sheet  to  go  with  each  month's  issue.  During  the 
last  year  the  writer  has  been  editing  these  Sheets  for  the  Popu- 
lar Science  Monthly.    There  are  in  all  about  10,000  teachers  who 


The  Materials  and  Activities  Listed  and  Described         61 

subscribe  to  the  Service  Sheets  and  make  use  of  them  either  as 
a  direct  aid  in  developing  their  course  of  study  in  general  sci- 
ence, physics,  chemistry  or  biology  or  as  a  means  of  stimulating, 
guiding,  and  controlling  the  after-school  reading  of  their  pupils. 
It  is  the  aim  of  the  writer  to  develop  these  Sheets  according  to 
the  type  of  demand  which  exists  for  popular  science  reading 
material.  To  this  end  questionnaires  were  distributed  among  the 
subscribers  and  their  reactions  to  the  Sheets  were  obtained. 
Although  full  figures  are  not  yet  available,  there  is  a  general  con- 
sensus of  opinion  that  the  use  of  science  magazines  is  chiefly  for 
extra-curricular  time.  Where  a  rigid  course  of  study  is  in  force, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  senior  high  school  sciences,  the  magazines 
have  no  place  at  all.  There  is  no  time.  In  the  junior  high 
school  and  in  the  elementary  or  general  science  course,  these 
magazines  are  most  valuable  assets  in  arousing  interest,  supply- 
ing readable  information,  and  suggesting  experiments  with  tools 
and  apparatus.  It  is  also  one  of  the  large  aims  of  the  Service 
Sheet  to  discriminate  and  lead  the  pupil  to  discriminate  between 
the  worthwhile  and  the  purely  puerile  and  vacuous  matter  with 
which  the  magazines  unfortunately  abound.  It  is  the  feeling  of 
the  writer  that  to  develop  power  of  discrimination  is  more  valu- 
able than  to  eliminate  the  magazines  because  of  their  faults. 


III.     EDUCATIONAL    AGENCIES    INVOLVING    SCI- 
ENCE MATERIALS 

There  are  three  forces  in  the  after-school  life  of  the  boy  that 
are  rich  in  science  stimulation.  These  are  in  connection  with 
the  popularization  of  science  on  the  moving  picture  screen,  the 
science  lecture,  and  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  the  present  study  to  list  the  hundreds  of 
science  films  that  have  flooded  the  market,  nor  to  describe  the 
activity  of  producers  and  visual  educators  in  this  field.  It  is 
also  true  that  the  present  stage  of  motion  picture  education  does 
not  warrant  any  large  assumptions  as  to  "value."  But  a  number 
of  the  better  films,  especially  one  on  the  automobile  which  is 
being  treated  experimentally  by  the  writer  according  to  the  same 
procedure  as  was  used  to  measure  the  activities  and  materials  of 


62  After-School  Material  in  Science 

this  study,  shows  a  very  favorable  comparison  between  what 
pupils  can  get  from  a  period  of  instruction  and  from  an  equal 
period  of  just  seeing  a  movie. 

As  for  the  program  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America,  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  it  is  activity  which  can  legitimately  be  classified  in  the 
field  of  science.  That  Scouting  is  a  potent  force  is  generally  rec- 
ognized. That  its  aims  and  ideals  as  well  as  its  social,  moral, 
and  ethical  programs  are  intimately  bound  up  with  their  content 
material  is  not  so  generally  understood.  In  England  the  Meccano 
Guild  program  (described  fully  in  Chapter  3)  is  being  accepted 
by  the  Boy  Scout  organization.  In  America  it  is  already  pos- 
sible for  Scouts  to  attain  their  higher  degrees  and  win  their  merit 
badges  for  showing  certain  scientific  knowledge  and  skills.  All 
the  propaganda  of  toy  manufacturers  designed  to  monopolize  the 
play  time  of  the  boy  for  their  particular  toy — their  Gilbert  Insti- 
tutes and  Meccano  Societies — their  engineering  degrees  and  their 
prizes  and  awards — should  be  controlled  by  a  movement  such  as 
is  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America.  Otherwise  the  taint  of  commer- 
cialism endangers  the  whole  future  of  the  boy  science  movement 
in  this  country. 

IV.  THE  SCIENCE  CLUB  as  that  particular  type  of  organ- 
ization which  the  teacher  can  use  to  guide  and  control  after- 
school  activities  in  science  will  be  described  fully  in  Chapter  9. 


CHAPTER  III 

EDUCATIONAL    PROPAGANDA    OF   THE    MANUFAC- 
TURERS OF  AFTER-SCHOOL  MATERIALS 
IN  SCIENCE 

The  advertising  methods  of  the  producers  of  the  materials 
described  in  the  previous  chapter  are  the  finest  illustration  that 
we  have  of  the  importance  for  the  welfare  of  the  boy  of  time 
spent  outside  the  classroom.  When  a  parent  buys  a  child  one 
of  these  toys,  he  at  the  same  time  puts  the  child  at  the  mercy  of 
the  sales  manager  of  the  company.  The  boy  gets  more  than  the 
toy  and  the  manual.  He  gets  literature  of  many  different  kinds ; 
he  is  told  in  a  very  entertaining  manner  of  hundreds  of  other 
boys;  and  in  many  ways  his  emotions  are  played  upon  by  those 
in  charge  of  this  phase  of  the  toy  business.  Generally  speaking, 
the  men  who  head  these  departments  show  a  profound  under- 
standing of  boy  psychology.  They  seem  to  be  attuned  to  the 
spirit  of  boyhood.  They  know  what  the  boy  likes ;  what  he  will 
work  for ;  what  he  will  fight  for ;  what  he  will  dream  about ;  what 
he  will  worship ;  and  what  he  will  save  and  spend  his  money  for. 
These  men  are  among  the  highest  paid  employees ;  they  are  men 
who  would  undoubtedly  have  made  splendid  teachers. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  methods  employed  by 
the  different  companies.  In  general,  there  are  four  types  of 
propaganda  used  to  grip  the  interest  of  the  boy  and  weave  around 
and  into  his  life  an  element  possessing  large  educational  possi- 
bilities.    Each  of  the  four  methods  will  be  treated  in  turn. 

The  Magazine  and  Booklets 

Every  boy  who  owns  a  Gilbert  Set  can  subscribe  to  "Toy  Tips," 
"the  official  organ  of  the  company."  Every  boy  who  owns  a 
Meccano  Set  can  receive  regularly  the  "Meccano  Magazine." 
Every  boy  who  owns  a  Chemcraft  Outfit  can  subscribe  to  the 
"Chemcraft  Chemist."  And  so  on.  The  important  aim  and 
function  of  the  magazine  is  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  boy  cus- 
tomers, keep  alive  their  interest,  and  thus  advertise  their  product. 


64  After-School  Material  in  Science 

That  this  method  of  advertisement  pays  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  more  and  more  effort  and  money  are  being  spent  upon  these 
magazines.  It  is  interesting  to  see  that  these  magazines  are  de- 
veloping along  lines  rather  remote  from  pure  advertising.  Origi- 
nally, literature  of  this  type  was  published  by  the  companies  at 
irregular  intervals  in  order  to  announce  some  new  toy  or  part  of 
a  toy — a  new  price  or  a  new  store  where  their  materials  could  be 
bought.  Gradually  material  that  was  but  indirect  advertisement 
was  interspersed.  Then  letters  written  by  boys  were  published 
andi  "boy  stories"  very  remotely  related  to  their  product,  but  full 
of  the  enthusiasm  for  experimentation,  began  to  appear.  Soon 
question  departments  were  started  and  boys  were  encouraged  to 
correspond  with  the  editor.  At  the  present  time  there  is  barely 
a  page  in  any  one  issue  devoted  to  direct  advertisement.  A  special 
editorial  staff  is  provided  to  do  this  work;  and  in  nearly  every 
case  the  director  of  the  company  himself  employs  this  means  of 
guiding  the  fortunes  of  his  product  and  of  keeping  in  close  touch 
with  his  boys.  T!ic  average  publication  is  a  bi-monthly  issue ; 
and  has  a  circulation  equal  to  one-half  of  its  annual  sales.  In 
recent  years  the  quality  of  paper,  print,  and  photography  has  been 
of  the  very  highest.  A  wealth  of  illustration  and  entertaining 
readable  matter  is  quite  the  rule.  In  short,  the  magazine,  itself 
interesting,  and  centered  around  a  concrete  activity  that  is  highly 
significant  in  the  life  of  the  boy,  finds  it  very  easy  to  tie  thousands 
of  boys  together,  giving  them  a  common  interest  and  develop  a 
"Gilbert  Spirit"  or  a  "Meccano  Spirit"  or  a  "Chemcraft  Spirit." 
This  "spirit"  furnishes  but  another  outlet  for  the  "gang"  instinct 
or  tendency  among  boys  of  a  certain  age. 

Some  of  the  methods  used  to  build  up  this  spirit  are  both  inter- 
esting and  significant.  First,  a  prominent  place  is  given  to 
pictures  of  models  built  by  boys ;  descriptions  of  how  they  work ; 
how  they  came  to  be  built ;  and  pictures  of  the  builders  themselves. 
Periodically  the  name  and  address  of  each  subscriber  is  published. 
All  types  of  boy  contributions  are  encouraged.  Then  the  maga- 
zines are  full  of  stories  of  great  inventions  and  inventors.  They 
compare  some  particularly  able  boy  with  Edison  or  with  Franklin 
and  stimulate  both  his  imagination  and  his  ambition.  Boys  will 
put  forth  tremendous  efforts  to  get  their  model,  their  picture,  and 
their  story  into  print.     A  third  method  is  the  use  of  fiction  and 


Educational  Propaganda,  Etc.  65 

poetry  based  on  some  scientific  idea  or  plot.  Though  never  of 
the  calibre  of  a  Jules  Verne  story,  that  type  of  story  always  has 
an  appeal.  The  magazines  have  always  been  ready  to  print  our 
Horace  Mann  Science  Club  News.  It  has  proved  a  great  incen- 
tive and  a  valuable  aid  in  stimulating  our  activity. 

Competitions 

The  vice-president  of  the  Meccano  Company  in  discussing  with 
the  writer  the  various  reactions  of  boys  to  these  after-school 
materials,  expressed  himself  in  somewhat  the  following  manner: 

'There  are  four  stages  in  the  boy's  reaction  to  Meccano.  In 
the  early  days  of  his  play,  he  is  bent  on  getting  the  mere  experi- 
ence of  manipulating  real  and  workable  things.  In  the  second 
stage  he  is  essentially  imitative,  duplicating  what  he  sees  in  the 
manual.  In  the  third  stage  he  tends  to  be  original,  to  invent,  and 
to  innovate.  And  in  the  fourth  stage  he  emulates  the  accomplish- 
ments of  others.  Furthermore,  there  is  no  fourth  stage  unless 
there  is  something  he  can  compare  himself  with,  something  he 
can  strive  for." 

All  of  the  manufacturers  have  recognized  to  some  degree  the 
above  analysis ;  and  we  find  especially  in  the  fourth  stage  of  the 
boy's  reaction,  that  they  all  arrange  for  elaborate  competitions. 

There  is  no  better  way  of  describing  the  appeal  that  is  made 
to  boys  to  enter  these  competitions  than  by  quoting  from  "Toy 
Tips,"  from  "Meccano  Magazine,"  and  from  "Chemcraft 
Chemist." 

"Big  Toy  Engineering  Prize  Contest ! 

"Think  of  This ! 

"$1500  in  prizes  for  you ! 

"Remember  this  big  contest  is  always  running  and  any  boy  can  com- 
pete. 

"Prizes  are  awarded  once  a  year. 

"This  contest  is  to  encourage  leadership  in  boys  in  building  original 
models;  new  models;  imitations  of  great  engineering  feats,  etc. 

"Think  of  it,  boys — 500  fine  prizes!  A  real  boy's  automobile  or  Shet- 
land pony! 

"You  can  enter  models  built  from  Erector,  or  any  other  Gilbert  toy. 

"We  do  not  want  to  have  you  send  in  models.  Send  in  drawings,  sketches 
or  photographs  of  the  model,  giving  us  a  complete  description. 

"No  restriction  is  placed  upon  the  material  out  of  which  you  make  your 
model. 


66  After-School  Material  in  Science 

"You  can  submit  as  many  designs  as  you  wish. 

"The  names  of  the  winners  will  be  published  in  Toy  Tips.* 

"Copies  will  be  mailed  to  every  competitor. 

"Every  boy  who  wins  a  prize  will  be  awarded  an  honorary  Diploma  in 
the  Gilbert  Engineering  Institute  for  Boys." 

"Meccano  boys  are  keen,  inventive  boys,  and  every  year  thousands  of 
them  design  new  models,  entirely  different  from  those  in  our  big  Manual 
of  Instructions,  and  both  they  and  their  friends  get  a  lot  of  pleasure  from 
them.  We  want  to  know  all  about  these  good  models,  so  that  we  may 
bring  them  out  of  their  obscurity  and  publish  them  for  the  benefit  of  all 
our  Meccano  boys,  many  thousands  of  whom  reside  in  far-away  countries 
and  are  glad  to  see  what  American  boys  can  do.  Don't  forget  that  we 
collect  their  models  also,  from  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  in  fact  from 
every  civilized  and  uncivilized  country  in  the  world,  and  bring  their 
novel  ideas  over  here  for  the  American  boy  to  enjoy.  Moreover,  we  want 
to  encourage  the  Meccano  boy  to  invent.  It  is  the  thinkers  and  inventors 
who  have  placed  this  great  country  in  the  front  rank  among  nations,  and 
in  Meccano,  the  American  boy  has  the  finest  possible  means  of  developing 
his  inventive  and  thinking  facilities. 

"Competitors  may  be  of  any  age  or  sex,  and  there  are  no  restrictions 
or  entrance  fees.  The  ingenuity  and  originality  shown  will  guide  the 
judges  in  their  decision,  and  no  preference  will  be  given  to  large,  elaborate 
or  complicated  models.  A  small  model  well  constructed,  and  demonstrat- 
ing an  ingenious  idea,  stands  just  as  good  a  chance  of  winning  a  prize  as 
a  large  and  intricate  one. 

"In  making  the  awards,  the  judges  will  pay  special  attention  to  the  fol- 
lowing points: — 

"ORIGINALITY. — Special  points  will  be  given  to  those  models  which 
show  initiative  and  originality  and  are  not  simply  variations  of  those 
already  published. 

"CORRECT  CONSTRUCTION.— Models  which  in  their  details  are 
constructed  on  correct  mechanical  and  engineering  principles  will 
receive  higher  marks  than  those  which  are  built  incorrectly  or  care- 
lessly.   No  special  knowledge  is  necessary. 

"GENERAL  INTEREST.— Preference  will  be  given  to  those  models 
which  are  likely  to  prove  most  interesting  to  build  and  demon- 
strate.   We  shall  publish  the  best  models  in  all  civilized  countries. 

"This  year  our  big  Contest  is  divided  into  sections  as  follows: — 
"Section  A. — For  Comx)etitors  under  10  years  of  age  on  May  1st,  1921. 
"Section  B. — For  Competitors  over  10  years  and  under  14  years  of  age 

on  May  1st,  1921. 
"Section  C. — For  Competitors  over  14  years  of  age  on  May  1st,  1921. 
"A  competitor  may  enter  any  number  of  models  for  competition,  but 
only  in  the  Section  for  which  he  is  eligible. 


Educational  Propaganda^  Etc.  67 

"Entries  must  be  in  the  form  of  Sketches  or  Photographs  which  should 
show  clearly  how  the  model  is  constructed.  Written  instructions  for 
building  need  not  be  attached  unless  they  are  necessary  to  explain  the 
working  of  the  model.  ACTUAL  MODELS  MUST  NOT  BE  SENT  IN. 
The  Photographs  or  the  Sketches  need  not  be  the  work  of  the  competitor. 

"There  is  no  restriction  as  to  the  number  of  parts  or  make  of  toy  which 
may  be  used  in  the  construction  of  a  model  for  the  competition. 

"The  judge  will  be  Frank  Hornby,  the  inventor  of  Meccano,  and  his 
decision  will  be  final. 

"Competitors  must  enter  with  the  distinct  understanding  that  the  sole 
copyright  of  the  photos,  sketches  ot  models  which  win  prizes,  is  vested  in 
Meccano  Company,  Inc. 

"If  considered  necessary,  winners  of  prizes  may  be  called  upon  to  fur- 
nish proof  that  they  have  complied  with  the  conditions. 

"The  results  of  the  competition  will  be  annnounced  about  June  30th,  1921, 
or  as  soon  after  as  possible. 

"A  specially  printed  list  of  prize  winners  will  be  sent  to  each  competitor, 
or  to  any  address  on  application. 

GRAND  PRIZE  CONTEST 

'^Open  to  all  members  of  The  Chemcraft  Club,  Junior  Members  and 
All  Boy  Chemists. 

"The  Chief  Chemist  is  glad  to  announce  the  second  grand  prize  contest. 
The  prize  contest  last  year  was  a  great  success,  and  more  than  500  experi- 
ments were  entered.  This  year  we  expect  several  times  that  many.  So 
all  you  Chemcraft  Chemists  get  busy. 

RULES 

"1.  Experiments  can  be  performed  with  any  of  the  chemicals  listed  in 
the  Hand  Book  and  Catalog,  or  furnished  with  any  CHEMCRAFT 
Outfit,  or  any  other  chemicals,  provided  no  dangerous,  poisonous 
or  explosive  substances  are  used. 

"2.  The  experiment  must  be  original  with  the  amateur  chemist  who 
sends  it  in.  Stock  experiments  copied  from  books  or  magazines 
will  not  be  accepted. 

"3.    A  Contestant  can  enter  any  number  of  experiments  he  desires. 

MASTER  CHEMISTS 

"The  degree  of  'Master  Chemist'  will  be  awarded  by  the  Chief  Chemist 
to  all  whose  experiments  are  exceptionally  good.  A  list  of  those  receiving 
the  degree  of  Master  Chemist  will  be  published  in  the  Chemcraft  Chemist 
Magazine  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  contest  closes." 

The  extent  to  which  prize  competitions  are  in  vogue  as  a  means 
for  advertisement  is  not  realized  by  many  teachers.  The  method 
is  not  at  all  new  in  school  activities ;  but  it  has  in  recent  years  been 
severely  criticized  from  an  educational  point  of  view.     Whether 


68  After-School  Material  in  Science 

such  stimulants  to  industry  and  aplication  on  the  part  of  the  pupil 
is  worth  while  or  not  does  not  matter  much.  For  when  our  boys 
leave  our  classrooms  they  are  attracted  by  these  competitions  and 
yield  in  a  very  human  way  to  these  dazzling  prizes.  On  the 
average,  20%  or  30%  of  my  boys  are  at  all  times  planning  or 
preparing  some  sort  of  an  entry  for  a  prize.  These  competitions 
are  not  limited  to  the  boy  manufacturers.  Practically  every  boys' 
magazine  or  popular  science  magazine  of  any  size  offers  prizes  of 
some  sort.  The  Popular  Science  Monthly  for  example  gave  away 
$5000  in  scholarships  last  year  and  about  $500  more  for  various 
minor  competitions. 

Degrees  and  Awards 

By  far  the  most  striking  and  effective  means  employed  by  the 
companies  to  maintain  their  hold  on  the  boy  are  what  might  be 
called  the  Boy  Universities.  It  is  hard  for  adults  to  appreciate 
what  the  International  Society  of  Meccano  Engineers  can  mean 
to  a  boy  or  to  regard  with  a  boy's  mind  the  Gilbert  Institute  of 
Engineering  or  the  Boys'  Chemcraft  Chemist  Club  of  America. 
To  receive  the  degree  of  ''Erector  Master  Engineer"  means  quite 
as  much  to  a  boy  as  the  LL.D.  or  Ph.D.  will  mean  later  on — per- 
haps more.  This  is  how  Gilbert  broaches  the  question  to  his 
boys: 

"I  know  that  everyone  of  you  is  full  of  ambition — chock  full  of  a  de- 
termination to  be  a  'big'  man  in  the  affairs  of  the  world  when  you  grow 
up.  And  so,  knowing  this,  I  have  decided  to  do  another  big  thing  for 
you  that  will  encourage  and  inspire  you — that  will  enable  you  to  prove  to 
your  mother  and  father  and  friends  that  you  have  the  'stuff'  that  the  real 
mean  of  the  world  are  made  of. 

"Listen!  In  addition  to  offering  valuable  prizes  for  the  best  models,  I 
am  going  to  give  boys  whose  models  of  Erector  or  the  Erector  Electrical 
Set  show  that  they  deserve  it,  free  membership  in  the  Gilbert  Institute  of 
Erector  Engineering.  What  is  this  Institute?  Well,  I'll  tell  you.  Instead 
of  awarding  only  prizes  for  the  best  models  built  by  boys,  the  'Board  of 
Erector  Engineers,'  which  will  meet  every  Thursday  of  each  week,  will 
confer  upon  boys  degrees  just  like  the  big  colleges  do.  These  degrees 
will  bring  with  them  handsome  diplomas,  suitable  for  framing,  and  will 
testify  to  your  ability  as  a  toy  engineer. 

"The  First  Degree  is  that  of  'Erector  Engineer.* 

"The  Second  Degree  is  that  of  'Erector  Expert  Engineer.* 

"The  Third  Degree  is  that  of  'Erector  Master  Engineer.' 


Educational  Propaganda,  Etc.  69 

"If  you  succeed  in  winning  any  of  these  diplomas,  you  will  be  proud 
of  them  all  your  life — because  they  will  be  issued  only  to  boys  who  show 
real  ability  and  promise  of  developing  into  men  of  brains  apd  character." 

In  addition  to  diplomas,  Gilbert  also  presents  his  "engineers" 
with  gold  fraternity  pins  and  gold  enamel  lapel  buttons.  The 
Master  Engineer  also  gets  a  gold  watch,  and  a  recommendation 
for  a  position  with  the  ''Gilgert  Demonstration  Department"  of  a 
local  store,  which  pays  a  salary  of  $10  a  week  for  three  weeks 
during  the  Christmas  Holiday  Season.  A  boy  can  win  the  First 
Degree  by — 

( 1 )  Sending  Gilbert  a  photograph  or  drawing  of  an  acceptable 
Erector  Model. 

(2)  Sending  Gilbert  a  photograph  or  drawing  showing  that  you 
know  how  to  put  together  a  motor. 

According  to  Gilbert,  "only  a  few  hundred  boys  in  the  whole 
United  States  win  the  Third  Degree  in  any  one  year." 

Speaking  to  the  parents,  Gilbert  advises  them  to  "interest  your 
boys  in  this  movement,  because  it  will  afford  them  a  great  deal  of 
wholesome  fun,  and  cannot  fail  to  aid  in  making  better  boys  of 
them,  and  admirable  types  of  men  later  on.  Also,  because  Gilbert 
Toys  direct  a  boy's  thoughts  and  actions  along  constructive  lines 
while  he  plays — his  imagination,  ingenuity  and  skill  are  encour- 
aged—  and  his  impressionable  mind  learns  that  real  pleasure 
comes  through  creating  and  not  destroying." 

Quite  recently  the  Gilbert  Company  has  made  a  few  significant 
changes  in  their  system  of  awards  and  degrees.  Instead  of 
Erector  Engineer,  has  been  substituted  Gilbert  Engineer.  Every 
boy  upon  purchasing  any  Gilbert  toy  gets  a  "credential  of  member- 
ship" which  entitles  him  to  several  privileges  among  which  is  the 
privilege  of  taking  examinations  for  higher  degrees.  These  ex- 
aminations may  be  taken  in  one  or  more  subjects  in  the  Gilbert 
Study  Series.     This  series  comprises  the  following  toy  outfits : 

1.    Engineering  Series. 
— Erector  (A) 
— Civil  Eigineering  (A) 

—Hydraulic  and  Pneumatic  Engineering  (B) 
— Signal  Engineering  (C) 


/'O  After-School  Material  in  Science 

2.  Natural  Science  Series. 

—Industrial  and  Recreative  Chemistry  (B) 

— Mineralogy  (A) 

— Astronomy  (B) 

— Microscopic  Research  (B) 

— Sound  Experiments  (B) 

— Light  Experiments 

— Heat  Experiments   (B) 

—Weather  Bureau  (C) 

— Telescopic  Research  (B) 

3.  Electrical  Series. 

— Elementary  Electricity  (B) 
— Magnetic  Fun  and  Facts  (B) 
—Wireless  (C) 
— Telegraphy  (C) 
— Telephony  (C) 

4.  Manual  Training  Series. 

— Designer  and  Toymaker  (A) 

— Carpentry  (A) 

— Picture  Framing  (A) 

— Soldering  (A) 

— Wheel  Toy  Construction   (A) 

— Glass  Blowing 

— Tin  Can  Toy  Making  (A) 

— Machine  Design  (A) 

5.  Recreative  Series. 

— Mysto  Magic   (B) 
— Chemical  Magic   (B) 
— Knots  and  Splices 
— Coin  Tricks  (B) 
—Handkerchief  Tricks  (B) 
— Photo-Phads  (B) 
—Card  Tricks   (B) 
—Puzzle  Parties  (B) 
—Air  Kraft   (A) 
— Briklor   (A) 

Items  marked  (A)  refer  to  constructions  and  models  of  various 
sorts.  The  examination  in  these  consists  of  submitting  photographs 
and  other  proofs.  Items  marked  (B)  refer  to  "researches." 
Descriptions  of  inventions  and  new  experiments  must  be  accom- 
panied by  parent  statements  to  be  acceptable  as  fulfillment  of  the 
examination  requirements.  Items  marked  (C)  refer  to  "examina- 
tions" where  explanations  of  phenomena  are  required.  The 
Institute  stands  ready  to  assist  the  boys  in  their  studies  through 
correspondence. 


Educational  Propaganda^  Etc.  71 

The  International  Society  of  Meccano  Engineers  is  of  course  a 
rival  institution  to  the  Gilbert  Institute.  This  society  also  awards 
three  degrees :  Membership,  Junior  Engineer,  and  Senior  Engineer. 

MEMBERSHIP. — "Send  in  your  name  and  address  to  headquarters. 
We  will  then  enroll  you  in  the  Society  as  a  member  and  send  you  a  copy 
of  the  next  issue  of  the  Meccano  Magazine,  so  that  you  can  get  acquainted 
with  it  and  hear  what  other  boys  are  doing.  For  six  months  you  are  to 
continue  model  building  and  do  all  you  can  by  talking  about  the  Society 
to  increase  its  membership." 

JUNIOR  ENGINEER  DEGREE.— "After  you  have  been  a  member  of 
the  Society  for  six  months,  you  can  become  a  Meccano  Junior  Engineer. 
Write  us,  giving  full  name  and  address,  date  you  were  registered  as  a 
member  of  the  Society,  and  state  what  you  know  about  Meccano  and  what 
models  you  have  built.  The  degree  is  an  award  for  merit,  that  is  why  it  is 
so  greatly  prized. 

"During  the  six  months  period  of  building  you  will  have  learned  some- 
thing of  the  history  of  Meccano  and  its  inventor,  and  the  names  and 
uses  of  Meccano  parts.  You  will  also  have  learned  the  importance  of 
the  Meccano  system  of  standardized  strips  and  girders  with  holes  one- 
half  inch  apart.  So  it  will  be  easy  to  write  us  a  letter  telling  all  you 
know.  In  this  letter  add  a  list  of  the  models  you  have  built  and  any 
you  may  have  invented.  Be  sure  to  write  clearly  and  use  one  side  of 
the  paper  only.  As  soon  as  you  have  been  awarded  the  Engineer  Degree 
you  will  get  a  beautiful  blue  enamel  button  and  a  letter  certifying  that 
you  have  been  admitted  to  rank  in  the  Society. 

SENIOR  ENGINEER  DEGREE.— "After  you  have  obtained  the  first 
degree  and  have  worn  your  button  for  six  months  and  continued  to  use 
your  building  Outfit,  you  have  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  a  further  honor 
called  the  'Senior  Engineer  Degree.'  You  obtain  a  second  certificate  and 
a  silver  bar  with  the  word  'Senior'  on  it.  The  latter  is  to  be  worn  above 
the  blue  enamel  button.    The  two  have  been  designed  to  match. 

"To  obtain  the  second  degree,  send  full  name  and  address,  date  on 
which  you  obtained  the  Junior  Degree  and  what  you  have  done  to  earn 
the  higher  rank.  A  Senior  Engineer  is  supposed  to  know  how  different 
kinds  of  girders  are  built,  to  be  acquainted  with  the  Meccano  'standard 
details*  given  at  the  end  of  the  Manual,  and  the  scientific  value  of  Mec- 
cano as  illustrated  in  Manual  No.  2." 

A  third  institution  of  the  same  type  is  that  of  the  Porter  Com- 
pany—the Chemcraft  Chemist  Club.  A  few  quotations  from  the 
Articles  of  Constitution  will  serve  as  a  description  of  this  organ- 
ization : 

"There  are  thousands  of  Amateur  Chemists  in  America.  In  fact,  almost 
every  boy  and  girl  who  has  a  Chemcraft  Outfit  is  an  Amateur  Chemist. 
All  these  boys  and  girls  have  lots  of  real  good  times,  perform  all  kinds 


72  After-School  Material  in  Science 

of  wonderful  chemical  experiments  and  learn  a  lot  of  the  elementary 
principles  of  chemistry  at  the  same  time.  Many  invent  new  experiments 
of  their  own.  So  many  have  become  Amateur  Chemists,  and  so  many  have 
new  things  to  tell  about  that  we  decided  to  get  all  owTiers  of  Chemcraft 
into  one  big  happy  family;  so  that  they  could  all  know  what  the  other 
fellow  is  doing,  and  each  could  benefit  by  the  experiments  and  tricks 
invented  by  all  the  others.    So  the  Chemcraft  Chemical  Club  was  started. 

"Another  object  of  the  club  is  to  promote  good  fellowship  and  friend- 
ship among  all  boys  and  girls  who  are  interested  in  Chemistry  and  to  fur- 
ther the  study  of  Chemistry  among  them. 

"National  Headquarters  is  the  central  place  from  which  the  activities 
of  the  Club  are  directed.  The  Club  is  made  up  of  boys  and  girls  in 
every  part  of  America  who  have  Chemcraft  Outfits.  There  are  no  offices 
at  National  Headquarters  except  the  Chief  Chemist,  who  directs  the 
affairs  of  the  Club,  and  the  Secretary,  who  keeps  the  records  of  member- 
ship and  such  things.  The  entire  membership  is  made  up  of  boys  and 
girls. 

"National  Headquarters  is  the  place  where  the  new  experiments,  tricks 
and  general  chemical  information  furnished  by  the  members  is  collected, 
classified  and  distributed  to  all  members;  where  the  charters  for  Local 
Chapters  are  issued  (I'll  tell  you  more  about  them  later)  ;  where  the 
questions  relating  to  chemistry  are  answered  and  suggestions  are  furnished 
which  will  help  members  understand  the  subject  better. 

"National  Headquarters  also  arranges  for  prize  contests  among  mem- 
bers, furnishes  the  prizes,  acts  as  judge  in  the  contests  and  awards  the 
prizes  to  the  winners. 

"The  official  magazine  of  the  Club  is  also  published  at  National  Head- 
quarters and  mailed  to  each  member.  National  Headquarters  also  fur- 
nishes the  membership  equipment  which  is  given  to  each  Full  Member 
when  he  joins. 

"In  fact,  National  Headquarters  is  the  guiding  hand  that  runs  the  Club 
and  keeps  the  whole  organization  in  harmony  and  running  smoothly. 

"Any  owner  of  the  Chemcraft  Outfit  can  join  the  Club  upon  payment  of 
the  yearly  dues.  All  members  are  furnished  with  the  following  equipment 
and  granted  the  following  rights : 

"(1)     Membership  Card 

"(2)     Membership  Button 

"(3)     The  Official  Club  Magazine 

"(4)     Catalogue  of  Supplies 

"(5)     The  right  to  compete  without  charge  in  the  Prize  Contests. 

"(6)  The  right  to  conduct  correspondence  with  the  editor  and  to  con- 
tribute to  the  magazine. 

"(7)     The  right  to  apply  for  and  receive  a  Charter  for  a  Local  Chapter. 

"A  Local  Chapter  is  a  branch  of  the  National  Club,  located  in  any  part 
of  the  country  and  run  by  the  Full  Member  who  starts  it,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  other  boys  he  gets  into  his  Local  Chapter. 


Educational  Propaganda,  Etc.  73 

"When  you  have  joined  the  Club,  and  so  become  a  Full  Member,  you 
can  make  application  for  a  Charter  for  a  Local  Chapter.  This  Charter 
grants  you  the  right  to  organize,  supervise  and  conduct  a  Local  Chapter 
of  the  Chemcraft  Chemical  Club  under  your  own  name.  Your  name  will 
be  written  into  the  Charter  and  no  other  boy  can  use  it.  The  Charter 
also  appoints  you  Chief  Chemist  of  your  Local  Chapter.  You  can  apply 
for  your  Chapter  at  the  same  time  you  send  in  your  Membership  Applica- 
tion so  you  will  get  all  your  equipment  and  your  Charter  at  the  same  time. 

"After  you  have  received  your  Charter,  you  will  then  proceed  to  organize 
your  Local  Chapter.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  get  together  two  or  three 
other  boys  and  explain  the  scheme  to  them  and  get  them  to  join  your 
Local  Chapter.  You  will  first  need  a  set  of  by-laws  that  will  be  the  guid- 
ing rules  of  your  Chapter.  The  following  is  an  example  of  the  best  form 
to  follow:" 

The  Boy  Departments  and  Letter  Bureaus 
The  magazines  of  the  various  toy  companies  devote  considerable 
space  to  the  answering  of  boys'  questions,  the  printing  of  their 
stories  and  communications  and  the  encouraging  of  the  boys  to 
correspond.  In  all  three  magazines  these  "boy  departments"  have 
been  highly  developed.  In  a  subsequent  chapter  will  be  given  an 
analysis  of  several  hundred  of  such  letters  and  their  significance 
treated  fuly. 

The  educational  propaganda  described  in  this  chapter  is  all  the 
development  of  the  past  four  years.  Obviously  this  is  too  short 
a  period  to  warrant  any  definite  conclusions.  The  companies  are 
feeling  their  way,  trying  one  device  after  another;  but  they  are 
firmly  convinced  that  the  idea  is  sound.  Their  conviction  is  based 
upon  more  than  the  mere  advertising  value,  though  that  is  a  most 
prominent  feature;  for  most  of  them  as  has  been  shown,  have  at 
heart  the  ultimate  worth  of  their  product  as  educative  material. 
To  bring  the  boys  of  the  whole  country  together  in  this  common 
pursuit,  with  this  common  interest  and  in  cooperative  effort  is  an 
ideal  which  can  take  the  shape  of  a  real  boy  movement  in  the 
field  of  science.  The  men  who  are  directing  this  propaganda 
have  already  commenced  to  feel,  just  as  the  pioneers  of  the  Scout- 
ing movement  felt,  that  there  are  certain  very  real  difficulties  in 
attempting  to  guide  boys  through  a  program  of  activities  at  long 
distance.  However  wonderful  the  personalities  of  men  like  Horn- 
by, Gilbert,  Porter  and  St.  John,  their  influence  cannot  be 
efficiently  transmitted  to  the  thousands  of  boys  all  over  the  country 
through  their  magazines,  booklets,   societies,   fraternities,   letter 


74  After-School  Material  in  Science 

bureaus,  and  the  like.  Most  likely,  the  companies  will  continue  to 
engage  in  this  propaganda,  so  long  as  it  remains  a  "paying  proposi- 
tion," and  there  is  ever}'  indication  that  it  will  do  so.  But  it  is 
not  likely  that  they  will  develop  their  work  to  a  point  where  money 
will  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  the  ideal.  One  prime  need,  for 
example,  is  for  the  three  or  four  agencies  working  independently 
in  this  field  to  get  together.  Another  need  is  to  provide  for  proper 
personal  leadership  in  the  place  of  the  leadership  through  printed 
matter  alone.     Can  anything  be  done  in  this  respect? 

In  a  later  chapter,  the  writer  will  describe  his  experiences  with 
the  Science  Club — ^an  organization  which  hke  the  Gilbert  Institute 
or  Meccano  Society  guides,  inspires,  aids,  and  keeps  tab  of  after- 
school  activities  in  Science;  but  through  direct  personal  contact 
between  a  director  and  a  comparatively  few  number  of  boys.  In 
England,  the  Meccano  has  organized  a  scheme,  known  as  the 
Meccano  Guild ;  which  resembles  in  its  program  and  activities  the 
writer's  Science  Club;  and  which  has  practically  monopolized  the 
science  toy  field.  Thus  we  have  a  starting  point  and  at  least  one 
experiment  by  which  to  go. 

And  because  the  Meccano  Company  in  America  is  now  taking 
the  lead  in  developing  a  boy  science  movement,  it  will  be  of  value 
to  devote  some  space  to  a  description  of  the  operation  of  the 
Meccano  Guild  of  England,  after  which  their  attempt  along  this 
line  will  be  modeled. 

The  Meccano  Guild  of  Great  Britain  was  organized  in  its 
present  form  about  two  years  ago.  For  years,  boys  had  been 
corresponding  with  the  Meccano  editor,  telling  him  of  Meccano 
Clubs  that  they  had  formed  on  their  own  initiative.  This  became 
so  common  that  the  company  finally  decided  to  take  a  hand  in 
furthering  this  club  idea.  In  less  than  two  years,  there  seem  to 
be  300  cities  and  towns  in  England  where  there  is  at  least  ond 
Meccano  Qub.    The  movement  is  steadily  growing. 

Before  proceeding  with  a  detailed  description  of  the  methods  of 
the  Guild,  it  will  help  to  keep  before  one's  mind  a  few  important 
features. 

1.  The  objects  of  the  Meccano  Guild  are: 

(a)  "To  make  every  boy's  life  brighter  and  happier.*' 

(b)  **To  foster  clean  mindedness,  truthfulness,  ambition,  and 
initiative  in  boys." 


Educational  Propaganda,  Etc.  75 

(c)  "To  encourage  boys  in  the  pursuit  of  their  studies  and 
hobbies,  and  especially  in  their  development  of  their 
knowledge  of  mechanical  and  engineering  principles." 

2.  The  Meccano  Club  is  a  science  club  in  everything  but  name. 

3.  Advertisement  of  a  direct  commercial  character  is  entirely 
absent  from  the  movement.  One  need  not  own  a  Meccano 
or  limit  himself  to  Meccano  activities  to  be  eligible  for 
membership.  He  can  even  neglect  Meccano  for  other  science 
activities. 

4.  No  Meccano  Club  can  exist  (officially)  without  an  adult 
"Leader"  and  a  capable  boy  "Secretary." 

5.  The  Guild  reaches  the  boy  through  his  leader  and  his  sec- 
retary. Special  pamphlets  are  prepared  and  given  to  the 
leader  and  to  the  secretary. 

6.  A  great  many  Scout  Masters  have  become  Meccano  Guild 
Leaders  as  well. 

7.  A  definite  program  of  activities  for  the  Clubs  has  been  and 
is  being  developed  by  the  Meccano  Company.  Latest 
methods  and  new  devices  are  supplied  to  the  "Leaders." 

From  the  pamphlet,  "Notes  for  Club  Leaders:" 

"Those  fortunate  individuals  who  are  brought  in  frequent  and  close 
contact  with  boys  and  youths,  and  who  have  the  power,  the  will  and  the 
ability  to  guide  them  in  their  work  and  in  their  play,  to  encourage  and 
help  the  lagging  ones,  to  stimulate  and  encourage  the  ambitious  and  clever 
ones,  to  open  their  minds  to  all  that  is  pleasurable  in  life  .  .  .  are  doing 
work  which^  from  a  moral  and  national  point  of  view,  is  of  value  beyond 
estimation. 

"Meccano  Limited  and  its  officials  have  worked  amongst  boys  for  more 
than  twenty  years. 

"The  number  of  Meccano  boys  at  the  present  time  runs  into  the  millions. 
We  have  corresponded  with  them  and  interviewed  them  on  all  subjects; 
we  have  been  the  confidants  of  their  hopes,  ambitions,  difficulties  and  fears; 
and  we  have  realized  how  much  they  stand  in  need  of  guidance.  They 
have  formed  little  clubs  and  coteries  amongst  themselves,  and  repeatedly 
and  persistently  they  have  asked  us  to  found  a  central  club  to  which  they 
could  all  look  for  guidance. 

"Realizing  the  immense  responsibility  and  work  of  such  an  organization 
we  delayed  any  action  until  we  felt  that  the  call  was  a  clear  one,  and  until 
we  had  all  the  means  and  facilities  to  carry  it  through  successfully. 

"You  as  a  Club  Leader  have  now  become  an  important  member  of  the 
Guild  organization;  have  approved  and  accepted  its  principles,  and  we 
desire  to  inspire  you  with  the  same  ideals  and  aims.    You  have  under  you, 


76  After-School  Material  in  Science 

looking  to  you  for  guidance,  a  number  of  Meccano  boys,  and  your  influ- 
ence among  them  is  great.  You  will  come  to  look  upon  your  association 
with  them  as  the  brightest  and  most  useful  part  of  your  life. 

"The  Headquarters  of  the  Guild  are  attached  to  the  Meccano  factories 
in  Liverpool.  Their  function  is  to  co-ordinate  the  work  of  the  Meccano 
Clubs  in  various  parts  of  the  country;  to  assist  officials  of  clubs  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  Winter's  syllabus;  to  furnish  all  available  information 
and  help  to  make  each  club  meeting  successful;  to  provide  badges  for 
the  members;  and  special  certificates  and  awards  for  boys  who  show 
special  aptitude;  to  insure  interchange  of  ideas  between  all  clubs,  and  to 
issue  an  official  magazine  regarding  the  work  of  the  Guild. 

"A  Meccano  Club  has  a  Club  Leader,  Secretary,  Committee  and  the 
usual  officers.  It  has  a  Guild  certificate  of  affiliation,  and  each  member  has 
accepted  the  objects  of  the  Guild.  Each  club  manages  its  own  affairs 
entirely,  draws  up  its  own  rules,  arranges  programs,  competitions,  demon- 
strations, club  outings,  etc.  Each  member  wears  the  official  badge  on  all 
occasions,  and  undertakes  to  acknowledge  any  other  member  of  the  Guild 
he  may  meet,  and  recognize  him  as  a  friend  with  interests  and  work  in 
common. 

"The  fate  of  a  club  depends  wholly  and  absolutely  upon  how  the 
boys  spend  the  100  odd  minutes  of  each  evening  they  meet  together.  All 
schemes  and  policies,  or  aims  and  ideals  depend  for  their  fruition  upon 
the  success  of  the  weekly  meetings.  A  boy  who  is  bored  or  made  uncom- 
fortable once  will  not  allow  it  to  happen  again  if  he  can  help  it.  He  goes 
to  a  club  meeting  to  gain  knowledge,  to  be  entertained  and  to  enjoy  him- 
self, and  if  he  is  disappointed  he  will  drop  out.  It  is  the  work  of  the 
Club  Leader  to  make  each  meeting  successful,  and  to  do  this,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  him  to  plan  out  the  work  beforehand,  and  to  carefully  and  tact- 
fully insist  upon  his  plans  being  carried  out.  For  a  sense  of  order  and 
method  makes  unruly  behavior  impossible,  whilst  something  interesting 
to  do  is  the  finest  disciplinary  code  yet  conceived." 

In  general  the  Meccano  Guild  suggests  four  types  of  programs : 

(a)  Lectures  and  papers  by  the  boys  themselves  or  by  adult 
outsiders. 

(b)  Working  at  and  demonstrating  Meccano  inventions. 

(c)  Competitions  among  the  members. 

(d)  Concerts  and  Exhibitions. 

Another  pamphlet  is  issued  to  the  Club  Secretaries.  In  this  a 
great  many  practical  suggestions  are  set  forth  designed  to  help 
the  boy  to  form  his  club,  secure  a  leader  and  a  club  room,  and 
stage  the  preliminar>^  meeting.  Typical  programs  for  the  year 
are  submitted  and  a  great  many  activities  suggested.  A  wide 
range  of  subjects  are  set  down  as  being  among  the  legitimate 


Educational  Propaganda,  Etc.  77 

interests  of  a  Meccano  Club.  Under  the  head  of  Engineering, 
the  following  are  listed:  bridges,  roads,  railways,  canals,  cranes, 
steam  and  electric  locomotives,  motors,  ships,  aeroplanes,  air-ships, 
mechanical  labor-saving  devices,  tunneling,  coal  apparatus,  agri- 
culture, elevators  and  transportation.  Under  the  head  of  Scien- 
tific, the  following  subjects  are  listed:  Electricity,  electric  bells, 
lighting  and  wiring,  electric  traction,  electrical  heating  apparatus, 
electrical  instruments,  wireless,  telephony,  electro-plating,  optics, 
astronomy,  hydraulics,  photography,  gardening,  bee  culture  and 
nature  study. 
The  following  is  also  adopted  as  the  Guild  Science  Library : 

Author  Book 

Clandy,  C.  H Tell    me    why  !      Stories    about 

Great  Discoveries. 

Smiles Self  Help. 

Williams,  A Victories  of  the  Engineer 

Romance  of  Modem  Inventions. 

How  it  is  Made. 

liow  it  Works. 

Romance  of  Modern  Mechanism. 
Frith,  H Triumphs  of  Modem  Engineer- 
ing. 

Holmes,  F.  M Great  Works  of  Great  Men. 

Doubleday,  R Stories  of  Inventors. 

Johnson,  V.  E Modern  Inventions. 

Baker,  R.  S Boys'  Book  of  Inventions. 

Hall,  H The  Young  Engineer. 

Adams,  J.  H Harper's    Electrical    Book     for 

Boys. 

Onken,  W.  H Harper's    How    to    Understand 

Baker,  I.  B Electrical  Works. 

Bonney Electrical  Experiments. 

Electro-platers'  Handbook. 
In  a  word  then,  the  Meccano  Guild  is  in  reality  a  movement  for 
the  proper  kind  of  after-school  science.  Though  its  methods, 
organization,  materials  and  even  aims  may  be  criticized,  their 
motives  are  not  ulterior.  They  look  upon  the  increase  of  Meccano 
sales  only  as  a  remote  and  very  indirect  outcome  of  this  propa- 
ganda. 


CHAPTER  IV 

BOY  REACTIONS  TO  AFTER  SCHOOL  ACTIVITIES 
AND  MATERIALS  IN  SCIENCE 

Chapters  II  and  III  have  aimed  to  describe  certain  forces  in 
the  after-school  time  of  the  boy.  They  have  not  attempted  to 
indicate  the  potency  of  these  forces  or  the  various  reactions  that 
they  call  forth.  If  we  are  to  evaluate  educationally  the  mass  of 
materials  and  activities  hereto  described,  we  must  very  definitely 
detenr.ine  what  boys  actually  do  with  these  materials.  Not  the 
elaborate  structures  erected  by  the  manufacturers,  but  their  func- 
tioning in  the  life  of  the  boy  is  the  important  consideration  of 
this  study. 

In  this  chapter  the  writer  will  present  experiences  and  obser- 
vations that  throw  light  on  the  question  of  how  the  boy  reacts. 
The  basis  for  the  facts  presented  are  four  years  of  experimen- 
tation in  the  Speyer  Junior  High  School  and  in  the  Horace  Mann 
School  with  about  500  boys  ranging  in  age  from  nine  years  to 
fifteen.  Wherever  possible  statements  will  be  given  in  quanti- 
tative terms;  the  figures  have  been  compiled  from  various 
sources,  such  as  the  minutes  of  the  five  Science  Clubs  (both  the 
secretaries'  and  the  writer's  own),  letters  written  by  the  boys, 
compositions  written  as  class  assignments  for  other  teachers,  rec- 
ords kept  by  the  writer  over  a  period  of  four  years,  and  other 
sources  that  will  be  mentioned  in  the  course  of  the  chapter. 

The  most  fundamental  reaction  of  all  is  the  extent  to  which 
boys  possess  these  outfits.  To  ascertain  this  the  following  ques- 
tionnaire was  devised  and  distributed  among  764  boys  as  follows : 

270 — 5th  and  6th  grades — Horace  Mann  School 

494 — 7th,  8th,  and  9th  grades — Speyer  School 


78 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Actwities  79 

Questionnaire 
Name 
Age  (last  birthday)  Grade 

If  you  ever  had  any  of  the  following  toys  or  have  them  now 
place  a  check  to  the  left  of  each  one  that  you  have  or  have  had : 


Meccano  Set 

Erector  Set 

Structo  Set 

Chemical  Set 

Electrical  Set 

Fun  With  Electricity 

Fun  With  Magnetism 

Wireless  Set 

Telegraph  Set 

Telephone  Set 

Railroad  Train  Set 

Steam  Engine 

Fire  Engine 

Electrical  Engine 

Stereopticon 

Magic  Lantern 

Moving  Picture  Machine 

Automobile  (winding) 

Tank 

Aeroplane 

Shocking  Machine 

Transformer 

Submarine 

Phonograph 


Batteries 

Wet  Battery 

Storage  Battery 

Dynamo 

Motor 

Train  (winding) 

Cannon 

Electric  Dog  and  Kennel 

Camera 

Piedometer 

Galvanometer 

Rubberband  Boat 

Winding  Boat 

Sail  Boat 

Motor  Boat 

Battleship 

Blinker 

Recko 

Tool  Chest 

Lathe 

Pistol 

Rifle 

Skates 

Bicycle 


In  the  following  space  put  down  any  toy  which  you  have  or 
have  had  and  which  you  cannot  find  in  the  above  list. 

Of  the  toys  you  have  checked,  put  another  check  next  to  the 
two  you  like  or  liked  best. 

Put  a  cross  next  to  each  toy  in  the  above  list  that  you  play  with 
at  the  present  time. 

Put  two  crosses  next  to  the  toys  you  like  best  right  now. 


80  After-School  Material  in  Science 

TABLE  I 
Average  Number  of  Toys  Per  Boy  (Horace  Mann) 

Number  in  Average  number  Average  number 

Age                           group                   of  "Outfits"  of  specific  toys 

8  to  9* 21                            2.Z  10.0 

9  to  10 45                           2.8  11.2 

10  to  11 75  3.6  11.6 

11  to  12 78  4.3  14.3 

12  to  13 39  4.8  16.7 

13  to  14 12  6.2  19.3 

Totals 270  3.86**  13.27** 

*By  "8  to  9"  is  meant  past  the  8th  birthday  but  not  yet  9. 
**Weighted  average. 

TABLE  II 
Average  Number  of  Toys  Per  Boy  (Speyer  School) 

Number  in  Average  number  Average  number 

Age                           group  of  "Outfits"  of  specific  toys 

10  to  11* 22  3.91  11.64 

11  to  12 84  3.92  12.97 

12  to  13 141  3.21  11.97 

13  to  14 158  3.29  11.73 

14  to  15 65  3.09  10.11 

15  to  16 24  3.08  9.58 

Totals 494  3.163**  11.688** 

*By  "10  to  11"  is  meant  past  the  10th  birthday  but  not  yet  11. 
**Weighted  average. 

The  ansv^ers  to  more  than  three-quarters  of  the  questionnaires 
were  obtained  during  the  fall  of  1920,  six  v^eeks  before  the  Christ- 
mas holidays,  so  that  the  flood  of  presents  v^hich  occurs  at  this 
time  does  not  enter  into  the  figures.  The  other  one-quarter  of 
the  ansv^ers  were  taken  during  1918  and  1919,  and  also  before 
or  long  after  the  Christmas  holidays. 

Tables  I  and  II  indicate  a  few  significant  facts : 

1.  Assuming  that  Horace  Mann  parents  are  wealthier  on 
the  whole  than  Speyer  parents,  the  boy  of  means  shows 
a  diminishing  interest  in  toys  at  a  later  age  than  the  boy 
of  lesser  means.     Or,  if  the  gradual  and  slight  decrease 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  81 

with  age  in  the  average  number  of  "outfits"  and  of  "spe- 
cific toys"  in  Table  II  cannot,  in  the  Hght  of  the  small 
number  of  cases,  be  considered  as  being  probably  true, 
the  table  might  still  be  regarded  as  showing  that  parents 
of  lesser  means  will  cease  to  buy  additional  toys  sooner 
than  will  more  wealthy  parents.  Perhaps  this  is  due  to 
the  injunction  of  the  poorer  parent  to  his  boys  to  con- 
serve and  take  care  of  his  toys. 

2.  Though  Table  I  does  not  go  far  enough  to  show  when, 
if  ever,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  toys  ceases,  cor- 
respondence and  conversations  with  Horace  Mann  Ele- 
mentary School  graduates  tend  to  show  that  14  years  is 
the  peak  in  the  matter  of  number  of  toys.  At  14  the 
boy's  interests  show  a  decided  change.  This  fact  is  clearly 
evident  in  Table  II. 

3.  This  decrease  in  interest  shows  itself  more  markedly  in 
the  case  of  "specific  toys"  than  in  the  case  of  "outfits." 

4.  Comparing  the  weighted  averages  in  the  case  of  the  two 
schools,  there  seems  to  be  a  far  smaller  difference  than 
one  might  ordinarily  expect  between  the  two  types  in  the 
matter  of  what  they  will  each  do  for  their  boys  in  the 
way  of  toys.  The  difference  would  undoubtedly  be  greater 
if  amount  of  money,  instead  of  number  of  toys,  were 
taken  as  the  criterion.  Educationally,  however,  the  expen- 
sive toy,  as  will  be  shown  later,  holds  very  Httle  advantage 
over  the  cruder  and  less  expensive  one.  That  the  dif- 
ference above  referred  to  is  probably  very  small  is  also 
borne  out  by  a  great  many  statements  of  toy  manufac- 
turers at  a  recent  convention  and  in  hundreds  of  letters 
printed  in  toy  journals  such  as  "Pla3rthings"  and  "Toys 
and  Novelties."  According  to  the  editor  of  the  former 
periodical,  "In  every  economic  crisis,  when  parents  have 
had  to  pinch  in  every  way  in  order  to  provide  essentials, 
they  have  seldom  neglected  to  include  toys  in  the  list  of 
essentials."  It  is  also  a  matter  of  common  experience 
with  firms  like  A.  C.  Gilbert  Co.  to  find  that  "the  depart- 
ment stores  that  cater  to  the  middle  class  and  to  the  poor 
show  relatively  as  great  a  number  of  sales  as  in  stores  of 
the  John  Wanamaker  type." 


82  After-School  Material  in  Science 

TABLE  III 

The  Twenty  Most  Fre(?uently  Possessed  Toys 

Rank  (order)  of  these  toys  according 
Order  of  Frequency  to  various  ages 

according  to  boys           10  to      11  to        12  to        13  to       14  to  15  to 

of  all  ages                 11(a)     12(b)      13(c)      14(d)      15(e)  16(f) 

1.  Skates    1            1              1             1              1  1 

2.  Erector-Meccano    3           4            2.5          3             7.5  3.5 

3.  Rifle    10         10            6.5          2            3  9.5 

4.  Bicycle    16           8            4             4             2  13.5 

5.  Pistol   10          2             2.5          7            5  9.5 

6.  Camera    10           4           13.5          6             4  3.5 

7.  Electric  Motor  5           4            6.5         10            7.5  2 

8.  Railroad  Outfit  16          12             5             5             6  6 

9.  Tool  Chest   10           6.5         13.5         12.5         10.5  6 

10.  Phonograph    5         14           11             8           13  9.5 

11.  Cannon    16          16            10            12.5         10.5  17 

12.  Steam  Engine 16           6.5          8           11           14  13.5 

13.  Wireless    10         10           13.5         15           18  23 

14.  Batteries    22         19           17.5        14           16  6 

15.  Telegraph    10         13             9            9           10.5  9.5 

16.  Magic  Lantern  20         16.5         16           17           18  19 

17.  Submarine    2         19           13.5         19           22  17 

18.  Chemcraft    10          10           20           20           10.5  17 

19.  Aeroplane    20         21           17.5         17           17.5  13.5 

20.  Moving   Picture   Machine  5         16.5        20           16           15  13.5 

Table  III  shows  a  difference  in  the  kind  of  toys  possessed  by 
boys  of  different  ages,  but  the  difference  is  not  great  enough  to 

indicate  any  particular  toy  or  particular  type  of  toy  as  being 
peculiar  to  any  age.  The  actual  differences  that  exist  can  be  seen 
from  the  following  set  of  correlation  coefficients : 


p  aJD 

=    .384 

p  b.c 

=    .664 

p  c.d 

==    .850 

p  d.e 

=    .851 

i>e.f 

=    .602 

These  are  Spearman  coefficients,  calculated  from  the  formula- 

.    6S  ly 

N.(NM) 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  83 

It  is  apparent  from  these  coefficients  that  the  differences  be- 
tween the  different  ages  are  slight.  The  largest  difference  occurs 
between  the  ages  10  to  11  and  11  to  12.     That,  however,  is  an 

unreliable  coefficient,  due  to  the  very  small  number  of  cases  upon 

which  the  ranks  in  the  10  to  11  column  were  based.  The  same 
might  be  said  of  the  ranks  in  column  "f." 

TABLE  IV 

Toys  in  the  Order  of  Popularity 

Rank  (order)  of  these  toys  according 
Order  of  Popularity                                to  various  ages 

according  to  boys           10  to      11  to        12  to        13  to  14  to      15  to 

of  all  ages                 11(a)     12(b)      13(c)      14(d)  15(e)    16(i) 

1.  Bicycle    2.5         1             1             1  1           2 

2.  Skates    1           4.5          2             2  3           3.5 

3.  Chemcraft  2.5         2             5             4  2           1 

4.  Erector-Meccano  6.5         3             3             3  10           8 

5.  Electrical  Set   6.5         8.5          4             5  4           5 

6     Camera    4           6.5           6.5          6  10           3.5 

7.  Railroad  Outfit   6.5         4.5          9           10  6.5         8 

8.  Wireless   6.5       11             8             9  5           8 

9.  Batteries    14.5        6.5          6.5          7  17         12.5 

10.  Dynamo    10           8.5         11              8  17            8 

11.  Telegraph  10          16           10           11  17          12.5 

12.  Magic  Lantern  10          14           12           13  17         21 

13.  Electric  Motor  Engine..  .14.5       13            13.5         21.5  10          12.5 

14.  Phonograph   14.5       16           16           12  17          12.5 

15.  Steam  Engine  14.5       12           13.5         17.5  35         28 

16.  Shocking   Machine 26         28           19           21.5  17         21 

17.  Train   (winding)    26          28           26           27. S  10         21 

18.  Rifle    20         28           26           27.5  10         21 

19.  Moving  Picture  Machine. 20         20           19           15.5  35         28 

20.  Sail  Boat 26         28           19           21.5  17          21 

21.  Tool  Chest 

22.  Submarine 

23.  Aeroplane 

24.  Tank 

25.  Pistol    

26.  Battleship 

27.  Cannon   

28.  Telephone    

29.  Motor  Boat 

30.  Rubberband  Boat  


TABLE  V 

For  First  15  Boys 

For  First  20  Boys 

.660 

.7S2 

.812 

.786 

.801 

.702 

—.421 

—.375 

.509 

.551 

84  After-School  Material  in  Science 

In  order  to  determine  the  differences  due  to  age  in  the  popu- 
larity of  the  twenty  more  popular  toys,  the  Spearman  coefficients 
can  again  be  calculated : 


Coeffici£nt 

p  a.b 
p  b.c 
p  c.d 
p  d.e 
/'e.f 

Table  V  shows  a  surprising  change  in  the  interests  of  the  boy 
at  14  years  of  age.  The  order  in  which  he  likes  the  toys  after 
14  is  not  at  all  the  order  in  which  he  prefers  them  before  he  is 
14.  Various  explanations  of  this  phenomenon  are,  of  course, 
possible.  Perhaps  the  most  probable  explanation  is  the  tremen- 
dous growth  and  development  of  the  boy  at  this  age,  which  is  at 
the  very  beginning  of  the  adolescent  period.  Toy  manufacturers 
have  reached  the  same  conclusion  through  bitter  experience  in 
trying  to  sell  their  toys.  They  find  that  they  cannot  appeal  to 
the  boy  of  14,  15,  or  16  as  they  can  to  the  younger  boy.  This 
has  become  so  well  established  that  manufacturers  now  speak  of 
"the  toy  age";  by  which  they  mean  "anywhere  from  4  to  14 
years."  It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  boys  of  15  and 
16  cease  their  activity  with  this  type  of  material.  They  do  not. 
They  usually  find  a  special  interest  which  becomes  all  absorbing, 
and  they  adapt  the  materials  they  can  buy  to  their  particular 
interests.  In  general,  it  is  true,  that  at  15  and  16  only  those  "toy 
materials"  which  he  can  make  do  a  useful  thing  will  interest  him. 

In  this  connection  it  is  significant  to  again  point  out  the  de- 
crease after  14  of  the  number  of  "outfits"  possessed  by  the  boy 
(Table  III)  and  especially  of  the  number  of  "specific  toys." 
Perhaps  if  parents  consulted  the  boy  more  before  purchasing  his 
toys,  this  decrease  would  be  even  more  marked.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  a  distinctly  new  type  of  toy  were  put  in  the  market, 
which  toy  was  better  adapted  to  the  adolescent  boy,  this  decrease 
might  not  be  evident  at  all. 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  85 

Another  consideration,  next  in  importance  to  the  number  of 
these  toys  possessed  and  played  with  by  the  boys,  is  the  time 
actually  spent  on  this  activity. 

An  examination  of  92  diaries  kept  by  as  many  boys  over  a 
period  of  three  weeks  shows  the  following: 

1.  The  fourteen  hours  of  the  average  school  day  during  which 
a  Horace  Mann  boy  is  awake  is  spent  in  five  main  activ- 
ities : 

(a)  In  the  classroom,  4  hours. 

(b)  Exercise  and  athletic  games,  2  hours. 

(c)  Doing  lessons  (music,  etc.),  2^  hours. 

(d)  Time  for  meals  and  going  to  and  from  school,  2^ 
hours. 

(e)  Play  or  free  time,  3  hours. 

2.  On  Saturdays,  Sundays,  and  holidays  outdoor  games  and 
"free  time"  divide  between  them  the  entire  day. 

3.  Forty-eight  of  the  diaries  expressed  their  greatest  enthusi- 
asm in  describing  activities  occurring  during  "free  time." 
Thirty  diaries  centered  their  enthusiasm  around  physical 
games  and  outdoor  sports.  The  other  14  gave  the  most 
prominent  place  to  school  or  class  work. 

4.  Though  **free  time"  spent  on  toys  is  seldom  a  regularly 
occurring  activity,  it  comes  in  protracted  periods,  ranging 
from  one  hour  to  four  hours.  Also  there  are  weeks  of 
intense  application  and  weeks  of  comparative  neglect. 

5.  After  a  period  during  which  little  toy  activity  has  taken 
place,  some  problem  or  query  will  bring  the  boy  back ;  and 
then  one  thing  or  another  will  keep  him  at  it  for  several 
days  until  the  enthusiasm  dies  out.  Usually  the  initial 
problem  that  brought  him  back  to  his  toys  will  be  very 
quickly  forgotten  in  a  host  of  new  ones. 

6.  Forty-three  of  the  diaries  make  mention  of  dreams  about 
toys. 

7.  Forty  boys  tell  of  how  they  lie  in  bed  and  think  about  how 
they  can  make  some  toy  work  better  or  how  they  can  per- 
form some  stunt  with  toys  or  what  they  will  do  with  them 
the  next  day. 


86  After-School  Material  in  Science 

8.  More  than  a  hundred  times  the  fact  is  mentioned  that  a 
parent  has  compelled  the  boy  to  leave  his  toys  for  some 
other  activity — much  to  the  regret  of  the  boy. 

As  regards  these  diaries,  the  writer  feels  that  they  are  subject 
to  error  in  that  they  were  kept  for  the  "science  teacher."  Never- 
theless they  agree  so  closely  with  the  observations  of  teachers 
and  of  about  46  parents  with  whom  the  writer  has  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  go  into  the  details  of  these  diaries,  that  it  seems  safe  to 
offer  the  above  facts  for  what  they  are  worth.  All  things  con- 
sidered, it  appears  to  be  true  that  the  "free  time"  is  the  period 
most  looked  forward  to  by  the  boy,  the  period  that  calls  forth 
his  greatest  enthusiasm,  enters  more  than  any  other  period  into 
his  thought  processes,  and  is  the  period  where  his  initiative  and 
originality  find  their  fullest  opportunity.  It  is  also  true  that 
until  he  is  thirteen  or  fourteen  this  so-called  "free  time"  divides 
itself  nearly  equally  between  physical  play  (sports)  and  "toy" 
materials  of  one  sort  or  another. 

The  writer  was  very  fortunate  in  enlisting  the  aid  of  the 
three  largest  toy  producers,  and  has  been  able  to  get  from  them 
several  hundred  letters  written  by  boys.  In  these  letters  the 
boys  describe  their  activities  and  ask  for  help.  Together  with 
many  letters  the  writer  himself  has  received,  there  are  in  all  432 
letters  which  will  be  analyzed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

First,  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  letters  are  encouraged 
by  the  various  magazines,  pamphlets,  and  letter  bureaus  previ- 
ously described;  but  that  no  definite  idea  is  given  the  boy  as  to 
what  he  is  to  write  about.  The  result  is  that  he  will  write  when 
he  has  something  real  to  say — when  he  has  a  motive.  That  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  get  boys  to  write  letters  on  subjects  of 
someone  else's  choosing  was  shown  very  clearly  when  the  author 
of  this  study  published  a  little  story  in  the  Meccano  Magazine 
that  ended  in  an  appeal  to  the  readers  to  write  a  letter  answering 
a  few  specific  questions.  Not  more  than  six  replies  were  received 
by  the  editor  of  the  magazine.  The  editor  then  told  me  that  that 
had  been  his  own  experience  over  and  over  again. 

Second,  the  proportion  of  letters  received  to  the  number  of 
sets  actually  sold  each  year  is  surprisingly  high.  In  the  case  of 
the  Porter  Company,  for  example,  68,202  sets  of  all  types  were 


Boy  (Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  87 

sold  during  the  year  1920  and  a  total  of  nearly  14,000  communi- 
cations received.  A.  C.  Gilbert  Co,  reports  an  average  of  2,500 
letters  a  day  during  November,  December,  and  January  and  an 
average  of  200  a  day  throughout  the  year.  (The  Gilbert  "Boy 
Letter"  office  holds  a  prominent  place  in  the  plant.)  The  Mec- 
cano Company  offers  the  only  evidence  at  all  contradictory  to  the 
above.  Their  vice-president  makes  the  statement  that  the  Eng- 
lish boy  is  a  real  letter-writer — ^that  he  will  "talk  his  little  heart 
out  and  explain  his  little  difficulties.  Not  so  the  American  boy. 
The  American  boy  cannot  and  does  not  write  letters."  The  dif- 
ficulty of  the  Meccano  Company  in  getting  as  large  a  correspond- 
ence in  America  as  they  do  in  England  may  be  due  to  an  entirely 
different  cause  or  set  of  causes.  For  one  thing,  the  movement 
has  been  developed  in  England  and  has  been  designed  to  meet 
specifically  the  needs  of  the  English  boy.  Then,  too,  Mr.  Hornby 
is  in  England.  Boys  must  send  their  letters  there  if  they  wish 
personal  attention.  Mr.  Gilbert  and  Mr.  Porter  are  not  only 
Americans  who  have  designed  their  toys  from  their  knowledge 
of  the  American  boy,  but  they  aim  to  answer  all  communications 
personally.  This  means  a  great  deal.  On  the  average  one  boy  in 
about  four  or  five  who  owns  a  set  will  correspond. 

Third,  the  letters  divide  themselves  into  four  classes.  There 
are  letters  of  complaint  (about  5  per  cent),  letters  desiring  infor- 
mation as  to  price,  etc.  (about  5  per  cent),  letters  desiring  scien- 
tific information  (about  40  per  cent),  and  letters  describing  new 
activities,  inventions,  new  experiments,  and  interesting  occur- 
rences (about  50  per  cent). 

Fourth,  the  set  of  letters  which  the  writer  is  using  as  basis 
for  these  figures  are  as  nearly  a  random  collection  as  one  could 
get.  Care  was  taken  not  to  choose  letters  that  were  published  in 
the  magazines  nor  the  "type"  letters  that  manufacturers  use  for 
advertising  purposes.  In  nearly  every  case  they  came  from  a 
folder  out  of  the  companies'  index  files.  Finally,  though  the  let- 
ters are  very  crude,  they  are  also  very  genuine. 


88  After-School  Material  in  Science 

To  the  question,  "Just  what  is  there  in  these  materials  and 
activities  which  interests  a  boy?"  the  letters  give  the  following 
typical  replies: 

(a)  "I  like  to  do  things,  make  experiments, 

make  things  work  and  invent." 120  letters  or  37% 

(b)  "I  want  to  win  a  prize  and  get  a  Gilbert 

diploma."    76     "       "  23% 

(c)  "I   want   to   become   an   engineer    (an 

inventor) "   64     " 

(d)  "I  like  to  fool  my  friends  and  show  them 

magic  tricks" 31      " 

(e)  "I  want  to  learn  how  to  earn  money".  .11      " 

(f)  "I  want  to  learn  how  to  use  tools  and 

learn  how  things  work" 6     " 

(g)  Miscellaneous  specific  ends 18      " 

(h)   Letters  lacking  in  this  information.  . .  .  106 


3% 

2% 
6% 


432     "        100% 

To  the  following  question,  "What  are  the  usual  difficulties  that 
confront  the  boy  while  working  with  these  materials  ?"  the  letters 
offer  the  following : 

(a)  Difficulties  due  to  lack  of  knowledge 184   or   54% 

(b)  Difficulties  due  to  lack  of  ability  or  technique  60     "     18% 

(c)  Difficulties  due  to  "wild-cat"  schemes 85     "     25% 

(d)  Difficulties  due  to  pure  accidents 11     "       3% 

(e)  Letters  lacking  this  information 92 


432  100% 

To  the  question,  "How  does  the  boy  usually  overcome  his  diffi- 
culties ?"  the  letters  offer  the  following : 

(a)  By  reading  in  books 30  or    11% 

(b)  Through  parent  or  other  help 21  "      8% 

(c)  Through  hints  from  other  boys'  experiments  34  "     12% 

(d)  By  "perseverance  and  experimenting" 91  "     33% 

(e)  Failures    101  "     36% 

(f )  Letters  lacking  this  information 155 


432         100% 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  89 

In  corroboration  of  the  figures  above,  let  us  see  how  the  500 
boys  with  whom  the  writer  has  had  close  contact,  divide  as  to  the 
three  points  for  which  the  letters  were  analyzed : 

First,  as  to  type  of  motive  or  interest : 

(a)  Number  who  just  liked  to  handle  things  and 

make  things  work 227    or    55% 

(b)  Number  whose  chief  motive  was  some  defi- 

nite reward  such  as  the  Science  Club  medal, 
parent  approbation,  or  Gilbert  or  Meccano 
prize    74    "     18% 

(c)  Number  whose  chief  motive  was  some  large 

ultimate  end ;  such  as  becoming  an  engineer, 

an  inventor,  learning  a  good  trade,  etc. ...  66    "     16% 

(d)  Number  whose  chief  urge  was  a  very  im- 

mediate   end;    such    as    mystifying    their 

friends  with  some  stunt,  etc 45     "     11% 


412        100% 

Item  (a)  above  is  similar  to  item  (a)  in  the  analysis  for  the 
letters  and  the  percentages  in  the  two  cases  are  55  and  37.  In 
each  case  this  motive  is  the  most  frequent  one. 

Item  (b)  above  is  similar  to  item  (b)  in  the  first  analysis  and 
the  percentages  are  18  and  23.  Item  (c)  above  can  be  compared 
to  items  (c),  (e)  and  (f).  The  percentages  in  each  case  are 
16  and  25.  Item  (d)  above  shows  a  percentage  of  11  as  compared 
with  15  per  cent  for  items  (d)  and  (g)  in  the  case  of  the  letters. 

Second,  as  to  the  type  of  difficulty: 

From  the  minutes  of  four  science  clubs  and  from  records  of 
conferences  with  boys,  the  difficulties  that  boys  usually  encounter 
group  themselves  as  follows : 

(a)  Difficulties  due  to  lack  of  knowledge 177  or  62% 

(b)  Difficulties  due  to  lack  of  ability  or  technique  66  "  23% 

(c)  Difficulties  due  to  "wild-cat"  schemes 37  "  13% 

(d)  Difficulties  due  to  pure  accidents 6  "  2% 

286        100% 


90  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Again  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  more  than  half  the  difficuhies 
that  boys  encounter  in  carrying  out  some  of  their  projects  are  due 
to  lack  of  knowledge  or  information.  Lack  of  ability  or  lack  of 
technique  (it  is  hard  to  determine  which  it  is  in  most  cases) 
accounts  for  about  one-fifth  or  one-quarter  of  the  difficulties. 
About  an  equal  portion  is  due  to  the  highly  imaginative  type  of 
boy  whose  wild,  impractical  schemes  involve  him  in  all  sorts  of 
difficulties  that  eventually  discourage  him,  in  99  cases  out  of  every 
100.  There  was  not  included  in  this  class  of  difficulties  the  type 
that  confronts  the  very  exceptional  boy  (the  near-genius  or 
genius)  which  difficulty  may  be  caused  by  a  problem  which  though 
essentially  sound,  is  far  beyond  his  present  comprehension  or  his 
available  means. 

Third,  as  to  how  these  difficulties  are  overcome : 

(a)  Needed  information  supplied  through  reading  41    or    15% 

(b)  Needed    information    supplied    by    parent, 

teacher,  etc 28    "     10% 

(c)  Inspiration  from  other  experiments,  such  as 

teacher,  friend,  the  book,  etc 52     "     19% 

(d)  Success  through  repeated  experimenting. ...  85     "     31% 

(e)  Failures   69    "    25% 

275  100% 
Note  that  three-quarters  of  the  cases  recorded  here,  and  two- 
thirds  in  the  case  of  the  letters,  were  cases  of  successful  solu- 
tions to  difficulties;  successful,  that  is,  in  the  eyes  of  the  boys 
themselves ;  and  in  the  sense  that  the  boy  felt  that  he  had  accom- 
plished what  he  had  set  out  to  do.  The  figures  also  point  to  the 
large  possibilities  for  the  influencing  of  reading  and  of  thinking 
which  are  offered  by  these  self -initiated  problems. 

One  other  thing  comes  out  very  strikingly  in  a  large  proportion 
of  the  letters  and  also  in  the  problems  that  the  writer  has  recorded. 
Every  time  the  boy  solves  a  problem  successfully  he  almost  always 
has  a  new  problem  to  tackle.  Statements  such  as  this  occur  very 
frequently.  ''Having  made  my  motor  operate  my  small  crane  and 
my  grindstone,  I  am  now  going  to  turn  my  mother's  sewing 
machine  with  it."  Or,  "Yesterday  I  tried  out  the  suggestion  you 
sent  me  about  boiling  the  soap  chemicals  a  long  time,  and  it 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  91 

worked  fine.  Now  I  am  going  to  make  perfumed  soap,"  etc.,  etc. 
When  the  boy  is  successful  he  not  only  enjoys  himself  thoroughly 
but  keeps  right  on  seeking  new  activities.  When  he  fails,  he  is 
discouraged  and  his  interest  lags.  To  keep  him  interested  and 
with  their  "long  distance"  method  of  reaching  him,  the  companies 
have  but  one  recourse,  to  make  things  so  simple  and  so  workable 
that  even  the  less  capable  boy  will  feel  that  he  is  successful.  The 
companies  have  as  yet  not  developed  any  means  of  utilizing  for 
educational  purposes  the  many  situations  in  which  the  boy  is  con- 
fronted by  a  very  great  or  insurmountable  difficulty.  Perhaps 
that  should  not  be  expected  of  a  commercial  undertaking;  and 
yet  these  situations  offer  just  as  great  possibiHties  for  the  progress 
of  the  boy  as  his  successes. 

In  addition  to  the  major  reactions  hereto  described,  the  writer 
wishes  to  list  a  great  many  minor  reactions  which  are  nevertheless 
quite  important. 

(1)  According  to  the  records  kept,  212  boys  performed  the 
Chemcraft  experiments  in  a  random  order,  picking  experi- 
ments from  the  last  few  pages  before  attempting  to  do 
the  earlier  experiments,  and  skipping  around  wherever  their 
fancy  led  them.  Only  32  boys  were  recorded  as  giving 
evidence  that  they  were  doing  the  experiments  as  listed  in 
the  manual.  The  large  majority  were  oblivious  of  the 
effort  of  the  manual  to  teach  them  the  principles  of 
chemistry. 

(2)  Quite  a  large  number  of  boys  tire  very  easily  of  the  too- 
overt  effort  of  the  manuals  to  teach.  This  is  true  of  all 
the  manuals  that  are  logically  organized  and  that  lay  stress 
on  the  laws  ''which  must  be  remembered."  This  does  not 
interfere  very  long  with  their  activity,  however,  for  they 
soon  learn  that  they  can  ignore  the  organization  and  do 
what  they  choose.  Mr.  A.  C.  Gilbert  and  men  of  his  type 
are  continually  on  the  horns  of  a  dilemma.  Shall  they 
make  their  appeal  to  the  vast  majority  of  their  customers — 
the  boys — who  care  only  for  workable  experiments  that 
they  can  enjoy?  Or  shall  they  surround  their  experiments 
and  models  with  textual  material  (which  will  be  read  only 
by  adults),  thereby  adding  "dignity"  to  the  outfit,  and  giv- 
ing it  an  educational  flavor? 


92  After-School  Material  in  Science 

(3)  That  the  manuals  do  not  function  as  they  are  intended  to 
by  the  companies  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  Erector 
Manual,  where  it  is  quite  essential  for  proper  construction 
of  the  four-sided  girder  (the  most  important  construction 
element  in  Erector)  to  follow  instructions  carefully.  Mr. 
Gilbert  complains  bitterly  that  his  boys  are  losing  the  real 
value  of  Erector  by  failing  to  learn  from  his  directions 
how  to  construct  a  four-sided  girder.  With  this  type  of 
girder  he  feels  he  can  compete  successfully  with  the 
Meccano. 

(4)  The  average  standing  in  the  Science  Club  Point  scheme  (to 
be  described  later)  of  the  212  boys  who  did  not  follow  the 
organization  of  the  manuals  was  considerably  higher  than 
the  standing  of  the  32  careful  boys  who  rigidly  observed 
instructions  in  the  manuals.  The  average  score  for  the 
former  was  102  points  and  for  the  latter  76  points.  The 
former  were  also  richer  in  "inventions"  and  original  ex- 
periments. The  latter  excelled  to  some  degree  in  class 
assignments  and  written  tests  on  class  work. 

(5)  There  are  a  considerable  number  of  boys  who  find  a  new 
kind  of  interest  in  their  outfit  (particularly  the  Chemical 
and  the  Electrical)  after  they  have  played  with  it  for  six 
months  or  a  year.  By  that  time  the  alluring,  sensational 
experiment  has  not  its  old  appeal  and  there  commences  to 
develop  a  sounder  interest  in  the  whys  and  wherefores  of 
phenomena.  New  relationships  between  experiments  and 
phenomena  to  which  he  was  oblivious  during  his  early  ac- 
tivity begin  to  appear;  and  he  enjoys  this  newer  knowledge 
quite  as  much  as  he  did  the  old.  Unfortunately  the  number 
of  such  boys  is  not  large  in  comparison  with  the  number 
who  fail  completely  to  react  to  the  organization  of  the 
manual.  But  proper  guidance  at  critical  periods  goes  a 
long  way  to  increasing  the  number  who  really  develop  an 
appreciation  and  understanding  of  the  larger  principles  of 
science. 

(6)  The  most  popular  type  of  construction  for  Meccano  and 
Erector  is  an  electrically  operated  derrick  that  can  also 
ride  on  wheels.  The  element  of  motion  has  perhaps  the 
greatest  appeal  to  boys  up  to  the  age  of  12.     The  whole 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Actnnties  93 

toy  industry  has  up  to  a  few  years  ago  been  built  up  on 
this  psychological  reaction  of  children  to  motion  and  to 
color.  At  the  last  annual  Toy  Fair  held  in  New  York 
City,  536  of  the  1,000  companies  exhibiting  sold  a  product 
that  sought  to  attract  children  by  mere  moving  of  wheels, 
etc.,  or  by  brightly  painted  objects.  At  the  Toy  Fair  a 
year  previous  to  the  last  one,  there  were  more  than  650 
of  such  products  out  of  an  exhibit  of  about  900.  It  is 
encouraging  to  note  from  the  above  figures,  and  also  from 
a  perusal  of  toy  trade  journals,  that  manufacturers  are 
beginning  to  apply  this  sensational  appeal  to  "meaningful 
toys"  instead  of  exploiting  this  reaction  so  peculiar  to 
childhood.  The  movement  toward  science  toys  has  per- 
haps been  the  greatest  factor  in  this  newer  tendency.  It 
was  the  most  enlightening  thing  to  toy  manufacture  to 
discover  that  although  the  rainbow  colored  pin-wheel  was 
a  great  "seller"  during  the  first  few  months  of  its  business 
career,  it  was  apt  to  "peter  out"  very  soon,  whereas  the 
Gilbert  type  of  toy,  though  it  needed  greater  advertisement 
and  a  more  educated  buying  public,  tended  to  create  a 
steady,  stable,  and  permanent  market — something  that  these 
manufacturers  had  never  enjoyed.  It  became  a  paying 
proposition,  then,  to  educate  the  public  up  to  their  product. 
As  for  the  boy,  he  would  much  rather  have  a  toy  that  will 
move  something  than  one  that  will  just  move.  He  likes 
to  take  things  apart,  but  enjoys  a  thousand  times  more  to 
put  them  together  again  so  that  they  work. 

The  topic  of  all-absorbing  interest  in  all  toy  trade 
journals  is  the  remarkable  demand  for  mechanical  and 
educational  toys.  Their  conception  of  "educational"  leaves 
a  great  deal  to  be  desired,  and  a  good  deal  of  what  is  said 
is  just  advertisement  talk;  but  a  decided  swing  in  the  direc- 
tion of  toys  with  a  meaning  certainly  exists.  To  a  ques- 
tionnaire sent  out  to  toy  dealers  by  one  trade  journal,  more 
than  60  per  cent,  of  the  letters  that  came  in  reply  contained 
some  statement  such  as  this :  "There  was  a  great  demand 
for  mechanical  toys  and  parents  show  considerable  interest 
in  practical  educational  toys."  More  than  half  of  the  ex- 
hibitors at  the  last  annual  Toy  Fair  showed  what  might 


94  After-School  Material  in  Science 

be  classed  as  "scientific  toys";  and  more  than  half  of  the 
advertisements  in  the  two  leading  toy  journals  are  of  toys 
based  on  a  law  or  principle  of  science. 

(7)  In  this  connection  it  might  be  worth  while  to  devote  some 
space  to  recent  developments  in  the  toy  industry  in  America. 
With  the  coming  of  the  World  War,  German  competition 
in  this  country  was  entirely  removed.  In  1913  toys  were 
our  second  largest  German  import.  After  1913,  American 
manufacturers  had  practically  a  free  field  in  which  to  de- 
velop. The  same  was  true  in  England,  France,  Japan, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy.  In  every  country  of  the  world  the 
opportunity  was  welcomed  (in  some  cases  by  the  govern- 
ment itself)  to  develop  an  industry  which  would  not  be 
dependent  on  Germany.  To  use  the  words  of  the  brief 
filed  with  the  United  States  Senate  Committee  by  the  Toy 
Manufacturers'  Association  in  their  plea  for  a  high  tariff 
rate  on  toys,  'Tn  closing,  we  ask  you  to  put  aside  the 
volume  of  production,  the  invested  capital,  the  number  of 
employees,  and  to  turn  to  the  real  reason  for  protecting 
American  toys — their  place  in  American  homes,  and  their 
effect  during  the  impressionable  years  on  growing  children. 
Toys  are  more  than  gifts  for  Christmas  and  birthdays. 
Childhood  is  impossible  without  play.  Under  modern  con- 
ditions toys  have  become  the  means  for  play  to  most  chil- 
dren. American  toys  must  stay  in  American  homes.  There 
they  will  teach  American  ideals  from  the  earliest  years." 
In  presenting  the  argument  for  American  toys,  the  toy 
manufacturers  point  to  their  greatest  value  in  contrast  with 
the  German  toys.  "Our  most  successful  manufacturer  to- 
day makes  it  a  rule  never  to  produce  a  toy  which  is  only 
a  *jim-crack'  and  attracts  because  of  its  novelty.  He  re- 
quires that  every  toy  he  turns  out  shall  bring  joy  to  the 
kiddies  who  play  with  it  and  also  leave  upon  the  impres- 
sionable mind  of  the  child  something  greater  than  the 
pleasure  of  the  moment."  The  brief  unfortunately  does 
not  tell  what  that  "something  greater"  is,  but  it  certainly 
leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  difference  in  type  of  toy.  In 
the  last  two  years  it  seems  that  Germany  has  been  flooding 
American  markets  with  toys  manufactured  before  the  war. 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  95 

which  have  been  lying  on  wharves  and  in  the  holds  of 
ships.  American  toy  buyers  have  been  taking  the  goods, 
much  to  the  consternation  of  our  manufacturers  who  are 
endeavoring  to  secure  tariff  legislation.  No  congressional 
action  has  as  yet  been  taken,  but  already  there  are  signs 
that  the  American  boy  has  been  educated  away  from  the 
flimsy  toy,  and  that  high  duties  may  not  be  needed  to 
protect  the  American  product.  As  far  as  can  be  discove^-ed 
by  the  writer,  there  is  no  German  toy  that  is  analogous 
to  the  materials  described  in  Chapter  II,  with  the  exception 
of  a  series  of  physics  experiments,  a  description  of  which 
will  be  utilized  to  point  out  another  very  interesting  reac- 
tion to  these  materials. 
(8)  It  was  mentioned  before,  in  discussing  Tables  I  and  II, 
that  the  boy  tires  very  quickly  of  a  "specific  toy"  such  as 
the  fire  engine,  the  "tank,"  or  the  battleship.  They  offer 
very  little  for  the  initiative  of  the  boy,  and  very  often 
cannot  even  be  put  together  again  if  taken  apart.  They 
offer  a  very  limited  scope  for  the  "original"  activity  of 
the  boy ;  and  although  some  are  better  than  others,  they  do 
not  compare  with  the  "outfits"  in  the  enthusiasm,  effort, 
and  thought  they  call  forth,  or  the  time  spent  on  them. 
Furthermore,  a  good  many  of  them,  like  the  steam-engine, 
the  battleship,  and  the  phonograph,  are  rather  expensive — 
especially  the  more  workable  kinds.  Two  notable  excep- 
tions to  this  reaction,  both  in  the  matter  of  expense  and 
possibilities  for  activity  are  the  camera  and  the  electric 
battery,  which  rank  very  high  in  the  estimation  of  the 
average  boy. 

Now  the  German  physics  experiment  as  a  toy  is  similar 
to  the  "specific"  toy  of  the  American  type.  About  16  sets 
have  been  examined  and  tried  out  by  the  writer.  Each 
set  is  contained  in  a  box  of  ten  compartments,  with  a  little 
trinket  in  each  compartment.  With  the  set  goes  a  manual, 
which  describes  in  great  detail  just  what  the  boy  is  to  do 
with  each  trinket.  There  are  sets  on  Light,  on  Sound,  on 
Electrostatics,  on  Electric  Induction,  on  Magnetism,  on 
Hydraulics,  etc.,  etc.  Some  subjects  require  two  or  more 
boxes  of  ten  compartments  each.    The  material  is  so  de- 


96  After-School  Material  in  Science 

signed  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  boy  to  do  very 
much  else  than  what  has  been  detailed  out  for  him  in  the 
manual.  The  apparatus  is  very  ingenious  from  the  point 
of  view  of  reducing  school  science  apparatus  to  a  miniature 
size,  but  it  is  extremely  frail  and  breakable.  It  is  also 
entirely  lacking  in  the  "fun"  element.  The  German  boy 
must  be  a  much  more  serious  animal  than  the  American, 
because  the  writer  has  failed  completely  in  getting  his 
boys  to  "play"  with  it,  even  when  the  fact  that  they  are 
German  toys  is  kept  a  closely  guarded  secret.  They  are 
a  source  of  amusement  and  keen  interest  when  the  teacher 
demonstrates  the  workings  of  the  miniature  apparatus,  but 
the  materials  in  themselves  possess  very  little  power  to 
draw  the  boy  or  to  make  him  handle  them  for  any  length 
of  time.  In  fact,  boys  tend  to  class  this  type  of  apparatus 
with  the  steam-engine,  the  fire-engine,  and  the  battleship, 
as  being  very  "nice  and  interesting  for  a  little  while." 

(9)  The  most  popular  type  of  chemistry  experiment  is  that 
which  has  to  do  with  gunpowder,  flash-powder,  and  colored 
lights.  The  companies  are  making  a  concerted  effort  to 
discourage  the  boy  from  this  type  of  activity,  fearing  that 
one  fatality  might  ruin  their  business.  Their  efforts,  how- 
ever, have  been  unsuccessful.  As  yet  no  case  approaching 
seriousness  has  been  recorded.  Page  upon  page  of  the 
Chemcraft  Manual  is  devoted  to  subjects  like  Food  Analy- 
sis, but  boys  will  "pass  them  up"  and  concentrate  on  ex- 
periments with  "sparklers,"  "explosions,"  and  other  start- 
ling effects.  As  nearly  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to 
estimate,  60  per  cent,  of  Chemcraft  experimenters  will 
react  in  this  manner;  the  other  40  per  cent,  will  show 
varying  degrees  of  interest  in  Food  Analysis,  Paint  Indus- 
try, Glass  Manufacture,  etc.,  etc.,  and  varying  degrees  of 
lack  of  interest  in  "fireworks."  It  must  also  be  pointed 
out  that  of  the  60  per  cent,  there  are  a  considerable  number 
who  eventually  tire  of  this  sensational  type  of  experiment ; 
and  if  they  then  do  not  leave  Chemcraft  entirely,  they 
begin  to  show  an  increasing  interest  in  other  parts  of  the 
manual.     Even  if  they  desert  Chemcraft,  about  half  of 


Boy  Reactions  to  After-School  Activities  97 

them  return  to  it  later  on,  with  a  much  heahhier  interest 
in  the  toy. 
(10)  A  most  interesting  toy  reaction  to  some  of  the  more  re- 
cently developed  sets  and  outfits  of  the  Gilbert  Co.  is  the 
readiness  of  the  boy  to  criticize  the  impractical  and  un- 
workable features  of  the  toy.  In  order  to  seize  the  market 
and  be  the  pioneer  in  the  movement,  Gilbert  put  out  in 
very  rapid  succession  a  whole  array  of  new  science  sets 
that  were  not  fully  worked  out;  did  not  supply  the  boy 
with  a  full  equipment  and  were  not  designed  to  meet  con- 
ditions that  confront  the  boy.  The  result  has  been  a  flood 
of  complaints  and  what  almost  amounted  to  a  boycott.  The 
Gilbert  Co.  has  recently  appropriated  $100,000  with  which 
to  improve  their  new  products,  but  are  finding  it  hard  to 
overcome  the  prejudice  against  the  few  outfits  which  had 
been  hastily  developed.  Thus  the  boys'  reaction  acts  auto- 
matically to  further  continual  improvement.  Unfortunately 
there  is  as  yet  no  control,  automatic  or  otherwise,  on  the 
improvement  of  the  strictly  educational  features. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PROBLEM  ANALYZED 

The  great  boom  in  mechanical  and  scientific  toys  which  came 
in  this  country  as  one  phase  of  the  development  of  the  toy  indus- 
try, in  the  absence  of  German  competition,  brought  with  it  a 
good  deal  of  talk  and  literature  on  the  subject  of  ''Educational 
value."  It  was  and  is  the  chief  "selling  point"  of  every  new 
development  of  the  last  five  years.  And  it  has  proven  to  be  a 
most  lucrative  method  of  advertisement.  Men  like  Hornby  and 
Gilbert  have  worked  themselves  into  a  frame  of  mind  where  they 
see  in  their  products  a  great  *'boy  movement"  of  untold  educa- 
tional possibilities.  In  Chapter  II  we  quoted  rather  fully  from 
the  aims  and  ideals  of  Meccano,  Erector,  and  Chemcraft.  In 
each  case  the  material  was  presented  as  a  vehicle  for  educative 
entertainment.  It  is  inherent  in  the  nature  of  commercial  adver- 
tisement to  over-state,  exaggerate,  and  make  extravagant  claims. 
It  is  unfortunately  only  too  true  that  an  unthinking  public  will 
accept  these  over-statements  and  exaggerations. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  establish  certain  principles 
or  criteria  according  to  which  these  educational  values  can  first 
be  analyzed,  and  then  measured. 

First,  let  us  see  what  the  manufacturers  feel  to  be  the  value 
of  their  toys — ^not  the  value  of  their  product  over  that  of  some- 
one else,  but  the  intrinsic  value  of  this  material.  Two  types  of 
statements  are  usually  forthcoming;  one  emblazoned  in  their  ad- 
vertising circulars  to  parents  and  adults,  and  one  to  teachers, 
educators,  and  the  sharply  inquiring  individual.  "Meccano,"  says 
Hornby  in  one  of  his  magazines,  "is  valuable  because  a  knowledge 
of  mechanical  principles  gained  early  in  life  is  an  asset  that  will 
count  strongly  in  favor  of  the  boy  when  he  rubs  against  the  real 
problems  of  later  life."  And  again,  "No  boy  can  play  with  Mec- 
cano without  being  trained  in  the  principles  of  mechanics  and 
engineering."  But  talk  to  Hornby  or  his  representative  and  ask 
him  what  he  feels  to  be  the  value  of  his  toy  and  he  will  tell  you 
that  he  does  not  know  whether  all  boys  can  learn  the  principles 
of  mechanics,  or  whether  all  the  principles  of  mechanics  are  in- 

98 


The  Problem  Analyzed  99 

volved,  or  how  many  boys  actually  learn  some  of  these  principles, 
or  even  whether  they  learn  any  at  all.  He  will  talk  very  assuredly 
about  some  things,  and  will  preface  most  of  his  statements  with 
"It  is  my  profound  belief,"  or  "It  is  my  positive  conviction,"  etc. 
From  the  concrete  evidence  and  personal  experience  which  he 
does  possess,  he  has  ventured  one  positive  statement :  "The  boy 
is  interested,  he  is  enthusiastic,  and  he  is  getting  real  experiences 
with  things." 

Gilbert  is  even  more  non-committal  on  the  value  of  this  type 
of  toy.  To  a  convention  of  toy  buyers  and  manufacturers  he 
will  point,  among  other  things,  to  the  following  basic  ideals  of 
his  product : 

(a)  To  instill  into  boys  the  spirit  of  leadership. 

(b)  To  bring  science  down  to  a  boys'  understanding. 

But  Gilbert  in  a  private  conference  will  hasten  to  confess  that 
he  does  not  know  what  the  real  values  of  his  toys  are.  He  "feels" 
that  they  are  worth  while.  He  enjoys  helping  his  boy  correspon- 
dents. It  keeps  them  out  of  mischief.  They  and  also  he  are 
having  lots  of  fun.  And  he  proposes  to  go  right  on  perfecting 
his  toys,  making  them  still  more  popular  and  in  still  greater 
demand. 

Perhaps  the  most  definite  statement  yet  made  as  to  educational 
value  was  made  by  H.  M.  Porter.  In  answer  to  a  very  direct 
question  he  says:  "I  believe  that  the  principal  educational  value 
of  Chemcraft  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  makes  chemistry  interesting 
instead  of  a  dry  text  book  subject.  It  connects  chemistry  with 
tangible  things  which  the  boy  and  girl  use  and  see  every  day  of 
their  lives.  It  tells  them  how  to  make  many  things ;  and  by  get- 
ting them  thoroughly  interested,  they  go  ahead  of  their  own  accord 
and  dig  out  the  reason.  A  boy  or  girl  who  has  used  a  Chemcraft 
outfit  wall  take  up  a  high  school  or  college  chemistry  course  from 
an  entirely  different  standpoint  than  the  boy  or  girl  who  knows 
nothing  about  the  subject." 

Without  going  into  further  details,  it  is  clear  that  parents  are 
being  flooded  with  vague,  exaggerated,  and  baseless  claims  for 
values  that  may  or  may  not  exist,  or  values  that  may  or  may  not 
be  values.  It  must  be  very  emphatically  pointed  out  that  we  have 
not  yet  been  educated  to  the  point  where  we  will  look  upon  the 


100  After-School  Material  in  Science 

activities  of  the  child  when  he  is  out  of  school  with  as  critical  a 
mind  as  we  regard  what  he  does  while  within  the  school  walls. 
Furthermore,  it  is  not  quite  clear  how  the  various  studies  and 
researches  which  have  developed  our  conception  of  curricular 
values  can  be  applied  to  extra-curricular  activities.  So  that  even 
the  parent  who  keenly  awakes  to  the  need  of  marshalling  proper 
influences  around  the  child  at  all  times,  has  no  criteria  by  which 
to  judge  or  control  the  type  of  materials  which  are  here  considered. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  chief  value  of  a  toy  to  be  the  fact 
that  it  "helps  keeps  my  boy  out  of  mischief,"  or  that  it  is  "the 
safest  and  sanest  thing  I  have  yet  bought,"  or  "It  is  very  inexpen- 
sive and  absolutely  noiseless."  These  expressions  do  not  always 
bespeak  unintelligence  or  lack  of  parental  interest  in  the  welfare 
of  the  child.  It  is  a  far  greater  indication  of  the  failure  to  utilize 
for  the  development  of  the  child  certain  forces  that  are  as  impor- 
tant as  its  "schooling.*' 

Play,  as  a  factor  in  education,  is  of  course  not  new.  Some  of 
our  leading  educators  throughout  the  ages  have  given  it  special 
thought.  Plato  was  the  first  to  give  it  prominence.  And  since 
Froebel  wrote  his  "Occupations"  we  have  had  a  long  list  of  ex- 
perimenters and  writers  on  the  subject.  Sj>encer  found  as  the 
chief  function  of  play  the  fact  that  it  furnished  an  outlet  for  the 
"surplus  energy"  of  the  human  organism.  Groos  and  Fiske  looked 
upon  play  as  "nature's  method  of  education,"  as  activity  peculiar 
to  "infancy"  and  of  value  in  preparing  for  adult  life.  Later  the 
above  theories  gave  way  to  G.  Stanley  Hall's  "race  recapitulation" 
theory,  and  even  this  theory  has  been  successfully  attacked  by 
writings  of  men  like  Dewey,  who  look  upon  play  as  being  just 
one  phase  of  the  normal  life  of  the  child — important  in  its  own 
right  and  worthy  of  being  an  end  in  itself.  As  Merriam  puts 
it  in  his  book  on  Child  Life  and  Curriculum,  "Education  through 
play  is  a  misconception  and  an  abuse  of  play  Play  through  edu- 
cation is  a  more  valuable  concept." 

The  tendency  then  among  educational  thinkers  is  to  establish 
values  for  play  activities  that  are  in  a  different  sphere  or  on  a 
distinctly  separate  plane  from  curricular  values.  This  may  ulti- 
mately be  developed  in  as  detailed  and  thoroughly  applicable  a 
set  of  criteria  as  we  have  for  curricular  studies,  but  in  the  absence 
of  these  newer  standards  there  can  be  no  more  valuable  evalua- 


The  Problem  Analyzed  101 

tion  of  the  materials,  activities,  and  reactions  of  Chapters  II,  III 
and  IV  than  to  compare  and  contrast  them  with  activities  of  the 
classroom.  Whatever  the  standards  are  that  we  apply  to  school 
work,  how  will  the  Meccano  boy  and  the  Gilbert  boy  measure 
when  the  same  standards  are  applied  to  them?  Obviously  an 
answer  to  this  question  will  orientate  our  problem,  and  is  the  very 
first  question  to  settle,  because  it  will  determine  to  a  large  extent 
whatever  else  may  follow. 

The  science  activity  that  most  nearly  parallels  play  with  science 
toys,  especially  for  the  boy  of  the  age  that  we  are  considering,  is 
the  course  in  elementary  or  general  science.  A  close  study  of 
the  recent  trend  toward  a  first  course  in  science  brings  to  light 
one  large  aim  from  which  the  values  of  the  study  are  to  be  de- 
rived. There  has  been  considerable  discussion  and  in  many  cases 
even  bitter  disagreement  as  to  choice  of  content,  its  organization 
and  method  of  instruction,  but  there  has  now  evolved  almost 
unanimous  agreement  that  General  Science  or  Elementary  Science 
or  the  First  Course  in  Science  should  aim  to  acquaint  pupils  with 
their  environment.  Other  aims  and  especially  their  relative  im- 
portance and  desirable  emphasis  are  still  very  much  mooted  ques- 
tions, but  that  environmental  science  is  the  starting  point  for  all 
writers  of  texts  and  framers  of  courses  of  study,  there  is  now 
general  agreement.  In  substantiation  of  this  statement  we  have 
the  expressed  aims  (as  stated  in  their  prefaces)  of  sixteen  out  of 
twenty  authors  of  general  science  texts,  studies  such  as  that  of 
Howe,*  in  which  the  opinions  of  teachers  and  educators  are  tabu- 
lated, opinions  of  hundreds  of  teachers  with  whom  the  writer  has 
been  in  personal  contact,  and  the  recent  N.  E.  A.  Report  on  the 
Reorganization  of  Science  in  Secondary  Schools.  The  chief  worth 
of  classroom  science  activity  is  the  increased  knowledge,  appre- 
ciation, and  control  of  the  environment  that  it  gives  the  boy.  En- 
vironment is  here  taken  in  a  very  broad  sense.  The  school  en- 
vironment, the  home  environment,  the  street  environment,  the 
newspapers,  the  theatre,  etc.,  are  all  analyzed  for  the  elements  of 
science  that  they  contain  and  materials  and  activities  of  the  class- 
room take  their  origin  in  them. 

Next  to  environmental  knowledge  and  environmental  control, 
there  is  greatest  agreement  on  the  proposition  that  we  should 

*  Published  in  the  General  Science  Quarterly  for  May,  1918. 


102  After-School  Material  in  Science 

teach  science  so  as  to  enable  our  pupils  to  appreciate  the  method 
of  science  and  to  use  this  method  and  the  thinking  procedure  of 
science  in  their  every-day  lives.  Obviously  there  are  several  aims 
involved  in  the  proposition.  Some  of  our  leading  educators  in 
science  teaching,  who  realize  the  limitation  of  a  beginner's  course 
in  science,  are  content  if  this  course  but  serves  to  inspire  boys 
and  girls  to  further  study  of  science.  Eventually  the  value  or 
values  sought  are  the  habituation  of  the  individual  to  the  greater 
use  of  scientific  thinking  and  experimenting,  and  possibly  the  de- 
velopment of  those  individuals  who  can  contribute  to  the  advance- 
ment of  science  in  the  way  of  discovery  and  invention. 

To  these  two  groups  of  major  aims  from  which  evaluation  pro- 
ceeds, there  are  usually  put  forward  other  aims  which,  though 
very  important,  have  not  received  the  same  degree  of  general 
approval.  General  or  Elementary  Science  is  taught  for  its  civic 
value,  for  its  vocational  value,  for  its  avocational  or  cultural  value, 
and  for  the  enthusiasm  and  interest  which  it  arouses  in  a  large 
proportion  of  any  class :  civic  value,  because  of  the  large  number 
of  commercial,  city,  state,  and  national  functions  that  are  inti- 
mately tied  up  with  the  practical  applications  of  scientific  laws 
and  principles ;  vocational  value,  because  of  the  inspiration  that 
frequently  comes  to  a  boy  or  girl  to  choose  some  field  of  science 
as  a  life  work  due  to  the  discovery  of  an  ''original"  talent.  This 
discovery  usually  comes  through  contact  with  the  materials  and 
activities  of  the  science  course.  Avocational  value  is  claimed  be- 
cause of  the  larger  applications  which  are  made  possible  by  a 
study  of  science.  The  universe,  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  forces 
of  nature,  all  offer  real  esthetic  experiences  that  are  heightened 
by  a  keener  understanding  of  them.  And,  of  course,  science  has 
been  the  source  of  the  greatest  proportion  of  life  hobbies  of  the 
more  genuine  kind.  Finally,  the  mere  enthusiasm  evoked  by  well- 
conducted  courses  in  science  is  always  a  desirable  characteristic 
about  a  pupil  because  it  furnishes  a  hold  on  him  which  can  be 
utilized  in  many  ways  to  further  the  general  efficiency  of  in- 
struction. 

Accepting  the  above  analysis  of  aims  and  their  corresponding 
values  for  curricular  science — especially  that  science  which  is 
commonly  given  to  a  boy  during  his  "toy  age" — ^it  is  proposed  to 


The  Problem  Analyzed  103 

also  adopt  the  analysis  for  extra-curricular  science.  To  recapitu- 
late, and  in  terms  of  our  after-school  materials,  the  criteria  which 
give  a  science  activity  value  are  these : 

(a)  Does  it  make  for  an  effective  increase  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  science  of  our  environment  and  of  its  control?  That 
is,  does  playing  with  toys  help  a  boy  to  know  better — 

what  things  are 
why  things  happen 
how  things  work 
how  things  are  made  and 
how  things  are  used? 
Does  it  also  give  one  greater  skill  in — 
using  things  and 
making  things? 

(b)  Does  it  increase  his  ability  to  construct?  That  is,  does  it 
make  him  more  adept  at  manipulating  things,  and  does  it 
increase  his  ability  to  fashion  raw  materials  into  usable 
things  ? 

(c)  Does  it  make  for  experimentation  and  inventiveness?  That 
is,  does  it  inspire  the  boy  to  experiment,  to  try  out  new 
things,  new  ideas,  new  combinations,  and  to  test  these  ideas 
in  experience  ? 

(d)  Does  it  have  vocational  value?  First,  will  it  inspire  one 
to  further  study  of  science?  And,  second,  will  it  inspire 
one  to  take  up  a  certain  vocation? 

(e)  Does  it  have  civic  value? 

(f)  Does  it  have  avocational  value? 

(g)  Does  it  involve  an  attitude  or  spirit  of  work?  That  is,  in 
accord  with — 

(i)  Dewey's  "Interest  and  Effort" 
(ii)  Thomdike's  "Mental  Set  or  Attitude" 
(iii)  Kilpatrick's  "Purposeful  Activity"? 

In  setting  up  what  are  virtually  curricular  standards  for  extra- 
curricular activities,  we  must  keep  in  mind  that  we  cannot  expect 
to  measure  all  the  value  or  values  that  the  latter  activities  may 
have.  There  are  a  whole  sphere  of  values  that  we  cannot  begin 
to  measure  with  our  criteria.  It  is  also  within  the  realms  of 
possibility  that  what  possesses  value  according  to  one  set  of 


104  After-School  Material  in  Science 

standards  is  decidedly  lacking  in  value  according  to  the  other 
set.  If  a  German  subject  in  the  year  1913  were  measured  as  to 
his  qualifications  for  American  citizenship,  he  would  most  likely 
be  scored  low  in  some  characteristics  in  which  he  scored  high  as 
a  German ;  and  he  would  possess  some  qualities  in  which  America 
would  have  no  interest,  and  others  of  keen  interest  to  her  in 
which  he  would  be  lacking.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  same  in- 
dividual be  measured  for  his  qualities  as  a  ''human  being,"  the 
criteria  set  up  would  certainly  be  different,  but  not  at  all  the 
same  as  the  German  criteria  set  up  for  the  same  purpose.  Ob- 
viously the  German  concept  of  "human  being"  would  be  a  German 
human  being,  and  that  of  the  American,  an  American.  Without 
forcing  the  analogy,  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  our  evaluation 
of  the  second  sphere  of  activity  in  terms  of  the  first  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  such  measurement  will  determine  com- 
pletely its  worthwhileness  or  even  indicate  lines  of  improvement 
or  of  development.  Only  in  so  far  as  both  types  of  activity  can 
adopt  similar  criteria  will  our  analysis  furnish  conclusive  tests. 
To  what  extent  the  criteria  previously  outlined  satisfy  this  con- 
dition it  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  even  if  their  origin  lies  in  cur- 
ricular  activity,  they  involve  to  a  large  extent  certain  general 
forces  making  for  the  development  of  the  boy.  The  analysis 
adopted  offers  more  promise  than  would  a  set  of  criteria  evolving 
from  considerations  of  the  extra-curricular  level  alone. 

Chice  having  established  values  according  to  our  set  of  measures, 
it  might  then  become  profitable  to  inquire  whether  science  play 
materials 

(a)  enable  boys  to  "play"  better 

(b)  give  him  more  "fun" 

(c)  offer  him  more  "wholesome"  activities 

(d)  solve  successful  certain  home-parent  problems  and  any 
other  criteria  on  this  same  level  of  evaluation. 

In  previous  chapters  were  described  four  types  of  Toy  "Out- 
fits" (Mechanical,  Chemical,  Electrical,  and  Sets  for  Special  Pur- 
poses), Specific  Toys  (about  seventeen),  certain  propaganda  of 
the  manufacturers,  and  there  were  briefly  mentioned,  the  after- 
school  activities  with  Reading  Materials,  agencies  involving  science 
materials  and  the  Science  Club.    In  all,  we  have  nine  large  types 


The  Problem  Analyzed 


105 


of  materials  or  activities.  In  this  chapter  eight  criteria  were  pro- 
posed, which,  if  applied  to  each  of  the  nine  above  mentioned, 
would  result  in  72  conclusions,  as  numbered  in  the  following 
table: 


^                        Environmental 

I 

V 

§ 

Materials   and 
Knowledge   (a) 

> 

L 

a 
> 

B 
u 

B 

u 
X 

W 

3 
> 

1 

s 

o 

> 

V 

o 

'C 

2 

•a 

e 
.2 

1 

> 
< 

3 
< 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

(g) 

(h) 

I.  Meccano-Erector     1 

10 

19 

28 

(37) 

(46) 

(55) 

64 

II.  Chemcraft,    etc. .     2 

11 

20 

29 

(38) 

(47) 

(56) 

65 

III.  Electrical  Outfits    3 

12 

21 

30 

(39) 

(48) 

(57) 

66 

IV.  Special   Outfits..    4 

13 

22 

31 

(40) 

(49) 

(58) 

67 

V.  Specific  Toys  ...     5 

14 

23 

32 

(41) 

(50) 

(59) 

68 

VI.  Propaganda 

Activities   6 

15 

24 

33 

(42) 

(51) 

(60) 

69 

VII.  Reading  Materials. (7) 

(16) 

(25) 

(34) 

(43) 

(52) 

(61) 

(70) 

VIII.  Educational 

Agencies    (8) 

'(17) 

(.26) 

(35) 

(44) 

(53) 

(62) 

(71) 

IX.  Science  Club   ....  9 

18 

27 

36 

(45) 

(54) 

(63) 

72 

As  has  been  mentioned  before,  this  study  has,  as  yet,  not  been 
extended  to  include  row  VII  or  row  VIII* ;  nor  has  it  dealt  with 


*As  regards  the  value  of  reading  materials,  the  writer  has  been  able  to 
collect  a  large  list  of  books  that  are  read  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  as 
novels  are  read — after  school.  A  rough  evaluaton  was  found  possible 
from  the  judgments  and  experiences  of  about  100  teachers.  In  the  case  of 
magazines,  the  writer  has  been  editing  for  one  of  the  magazines  (The 
Popular  Science  Monthly)  a  monthly  Service  Sheet  for  Teachers  in  which 
sheets  the  science  material  is  so  organized  as  to  be  applicable  to  (and  to 
function  in)  the  curricular  and  extra-curricular  phases  of  the  general  sci- 
ence course. 

In  the  case  of  the  educational  agencies  that  involve  science  materials 
and  actvities,  only  the  moving  pictures  were  investigated  to  any  degree. 
And  in  this  case  a  typical  film  was  tested  objectively  by  the  procedure 
which  is  described  in  Chapter  Six. 

None  of  this,  however,  is  being  submitted  in  this  report. 


106  After-School  Material  in  Science 

the  criteria  of  columns  (e),  (f),  and  (g).  These  imposed  limita- 
tions will  reduce  our  possible  conclusions  to  the  items  numbered 
and  not  enclosed  in  parenthesis.  Other  limitations  inherent  in 
the  study  concern  themselves  with  the  procedure  used  in  applying 
the  criteria.  It  has  not  always  been  found  possible  to  treat  all 
items  experimentally  and  with  objective  measurements.  This  was 
the  case  in  all  the  items  of  columns  (d)  and  (h)  and  in  all  the 
items  of  row  IX.  The  details  of  procedure  are  described  fully 
in  the  chapter  that  follows. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PROCEDURE  USED 

In  the  Speyer  School  experiment  of  1916  to  1918  the  science 
teachers  found  themselves  in  the  unfortunate  position  of  having 
to  teach  their  subject  without  either  laboratory  facilities  or  equip- 
ment of  any  sort.  It  is  a  fact  hard  to  believe  but  only  too  true. 
Not  even  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  graced  the  shelves  of  the  former 
cooking  pantry  which  had  been  turned  over  to  the  science  depart- 
ment. This  almost  unheard  of  condition  necessitated  heroic 
measures.  The  exceptional  circumstances  brought  about  excep- 
tional methods  of  procedure,  with  the  result  that  all  recognized 
"curricular"  principles  of  teaching  had  to  be  abandoned.  Force 
of  circumstance  focused  the  attention  of  the  teachers  on  the 
activity  that  was  going  on  among  the  boys  out  of  school.  In 
order  to  keep  from  drowning  in  a  sea  of  difficulties  they  grasped 
at  a  solution  which  the  boys  themselves  offered,  as  for  the  pro- 
verbial straw.  It  took  two  years  to  build  an  equipment  and  a 
makeshift  laboratory.  And  what  an  equipment  it  was!  Dozens 
and  dozens  of  junk  rooms  were  despoiled  of  their  discards;  old 
broken  toys  that  boys  donated;  crude  apparatus  built  by  pupils 
at  home  out  of  tin  cans  and  cigar  boxes,  and  shelf  upon  shelf  of 
scientific  toys  and  outfits,  loaned  to  the  teacher  for  a  term  or  two 
by  enthusiastic  and  generous  boys. 

It  was  the  most  enlightening  two  years  the  writer  has  ever  spent. 
Long  afternoons  devoted  to  planning  and  preparing  for  the  work 
of  the  next  day  brought  to  light  the  inner  urgings  of  the  boy; 
for  the  latter  took  full  part  in  these  plannings  and  preparations. 
Gradually  a  program  evolved,  based  on  what  might  be  termed  the 
"extra-curricular"  spirit. 

The  method  of  class  instruction  was  a  form  of  socialized  recita- 
tion which  has  been  described  at  length  by  the  writer  in  articles 
printed  in  the  General  Science  Quarterly  for  May  1918,  and  May 
1919.  The  content  of  the  course  was  virtually  the  materials  of 
Chapter  II.     The  two  years  were  a  period  of  enforced  experi- 

107 


108  After-School  Material  in  Science 

mentation  with  science  activities  of  all  types,  originating  in  the 
after- school  interests  of  the  boy.  Though  no  organized  effort 
was  made  to  measure  the  actual  value  of  this  activity,  it  was 
carefully  watched  and  studied.  In  the  beginning  the  situation 
compelled  a  liberal  amount  of  freedom  for  the  pupils  in  their 
choice  of  subject  matter;  and  as  the  work  developed  no  cause 
appeared  for  withdrawing  this  freedom  in  any  large  way.  When 
guidance  and  control  became  necessary  it  was  found  that  an 
after-school  organization — a  science  club — was  very  effective. 
The  net  result  of  the  two  years  was  a  crystallization  of  a  class 
procedure  that  correlated  with  a  program  of  after-school  activities 
in  science,  a  discovery  of  the  well-springs  of  the  boy's  enthusiasm 
and  a  realization  that  what  goes  on  outside  of  our  classroom  walls 
under  the  guise  of  "play"  is  of  tremendous  significance  in  the 
development  (education)  of  the  boy. 

In  the  year  which  followed,  this  time  in  the  Horace  Mann 
School,  the  experiences  of  the  Speyer  School  were  checked  up 
and  verified.  In  the  main  the  problems  were  the  same,  with  the 
"extra-curricular"  activities  more  predominant,  if  anything.  The 
analysis  of  the  foregoing  chapter  and  the  necessity  for  objective 
measurement  came  at  this  stage  and  concerned  itself  with  the 
last  two  years  in  the  Horace  Mann  School. 

In  measuring  the  extra-curricular  in  terms  of  the  curricular 
we  are  comparing  an  activity  about  which  we  know  relatively 
little  with  an  activity  about  which  we  know  a  good  deal.  Thus, 
in  the  case  of  class-teaching,  we  know  accurately  the  amount  of 
time  spent,  the  materials  used,  the  nature  of  the  reviews,  the 
questions  asked,  the  reaction  produced,  the  effort  evoked  and  a 
fairly  reliable  measure  of  accomplishment.  In  the  case  of  the 
extra-curricular  we  know  of  these  things  in  a  vague  way,  if  at  all. 
The  whole  of  Chapter  IV  was  devoted  to  a  description  of  the 
variable  nature  of  "after-school"  reactions  to  science  materials. 
Furthermore,  we  have  no  way  of  knowing  the  extent  to  which 
other  factors,  in  addition  to  the  boy  and  his  materials,  enter  into 
the  problem.  How  much  parent  control  is  there?  What  is  the 
effect  of  the  back  and  forth  questioning  and  suggesting  that  may 
go  on  between  father  and  son  or  brother  and  brother?  What 
influence  has  the  physical  environment  of  the  home?  And  other 
factors  of  a  similar  nature. 


The  Procedure  Used  109 

The  first  essential,  then,  was  to  bring  this  activity  under  as  close 
observation  as  was  the  class-work  in  science  and  yet  not  deaden 
its  spontaneity  in  any  way.  This  was  accomplished  by  means  of 
a  well-organized  science  club  with  a  program  of  activities  that 
brought  the  boys  into  the  school  for  some  of  their  "play." 

A  second  essential  was  a  common  ground;  that  is,  a  common 
body  of  content,  so  that  the  comparison  would  be  a  fair  one. 
This  raised  a  serious  problem.  To  teach  the  things  that  boys  will 
play  with  is  to  introduce  a  control  on  teaching  that  may  work  to 
its  disadvantage.  To  make  boys  play  with  the  things  they  are 
taught  (if  that  were  possible)  would  be  to  destroy  completely 
the  "play."  To  solve  the  problem  two  procedures  were  adopted. 
During  1919-1920  the  play  was  permitted  to  go  on  uncontrolled, 
as  was  the  teaching.  At  the  end  of  the  year  a  good  deal  of  over- 
lapping was  found  to  exist.  Tests  based  on  this  overlapping 
material  were  used  as  a  means  of  measurement.  During  1920- 
1921  a  series  of  play  units  were  chosen  on  the  basis  of  the  most 
popular  toys  as  determined  in  Chapter  IV,  and  the  entire  course 
of  study  for  the  year's  teaching  was  developed  from  these  play 
units.  Thus  the  teaching  was  "controlled,"  as  was  also  the  play  to 
a  lesser  extent  and  the  tests  given  were  entirely  on  an  identical 
body  of  content. 

During  the  two  years  the  comparisons  drawn  were  among  four 
groups  of  almost  equal  mental  age  and  I.  Q.*  Group  A  in  both 
cases  had  not  only  the  teaching  but  also  the  play.  Group  B  had 
only  the  teaching.  Group  C  had  only  the  play,  and  Group  D  had 
neither.  The  last  group  was  introduced  as  a  control  group.  A 
peculiar  arrangement  of  the  school  program  facilitated  the  selec- 
tions of  these  different  groups.  The  sixth  grade  boys  have 
science  and  industrial  arts  scheduled  as  a  regular  subject.  About 
half  of  them  join  the  club  and  half  of  them  do  not.  Thus  Groups 
A  and  B  were  obtained;  for  they  both  had  science  instruction 
and  only  the  one  had  play  activities.  Also,  most  of  the  5th  grade 
boys  do  not  have  science  and  industrial  arts  scheduled  regularly. 
From  those  who  joined  the  club  Group  C  was  formed  and  those 
who  did  not,  Group  D.  It  is  to  be  noted,  also,  that  Groups  A  and  B 

*Groups  C  and  D  were  drawn  from  the  Sth  grade,  whereas  Groups  A 
and  B  were  drawn  from  the  6th  grade.     Thus  the  former  were  on  the 

average  one  year  mental  age  younger  than  the  latter. 


110  After-School  Material  in  Science 

received  identical  instruction,  most  of  them  coming  as  one  class ; 
and  Groups  A  and  C  received  their  play  together,  all  of  them 
attending  club  at  the  same  time. 

During  1920-1921  the  total  amount  of  time  spent  on  teaching 
was  twenty  periods  of  30  minutes  each  and  twenty  periods  of  15 
minutes  each,  allowing  forty-five  minutes  during  each  week  of 
the  school  year  up  till  the  end  of  March.  The  time  allotted  to 
play  was  a  thirty-five  to  forty-five  minute  period  a  week  for  20 
weeks. 

The  character  and  method  of  both  the  play  and  the  teaching  are 
significant.  First  as  to  the  play.  A  large  chart  was  prepared 
listing  the  club  members  vertically  and  the  twenty  play  units 
horizontally.  By  the  end  of  March  each  square  in  the  chart  was 
checked,  indicating  that  each  member  of  Groups  A  and  C  had 
participated  in  at  least  these  twenty  units  of  activity.  There 
being  about  50  boys  in  the  two  groups,  it  was  impossible  to  permit 
them  all  to  work  or  rather  play  at  the  same  time.  Fifteen  was 
usually  the  maximum  number  that  were  present  at  one  time  in  the 
Science  Play  Shop.  No  bonus  or  reward  was  offered  for  this 
activity.  They  came  on  practically  every  afternoon  of  the  week 
and  of  their  own  volition.  When  a  boy  came  into  the  shop  to 
**play"  he  was  asked  to  choose  any  particular  unit  he  wished, 
that  he  hadn't  already  played  with  before.  The  choice  being 
made,  he  was  handed  a  card  and  a  box  of  materials  to  play  with. 
Now,  it  was  found  that  to  throw  a  piece  of  equipment  in  the  way 
of  a  boy  brings  forth  reactions  that  of  course  vary  with  the  boy ; 
but  when  the  things  ten  or  twenty  of  them  will  do  with  a  given 
toy  are  all  listed  there  are  always  about  four  or  five  manipula- 
tions that  are  common.  These  common  manipulations  or  stunts — 
the  minimum  number  of  essential  reactions — were  previously 
determined  by  closely  watching  and  recording  what  fifteen  boys 
would  do  with  each  of  the  20  units.  These  minimums  were  sug- 
gested to  the  boy  on  the  card  that  went  with  his  box  of  materials. 
The  card  then  served  two  purposes.  First,  it  listed  the  materials 
which  he  was  to  find,  and  second,  it  suggested  certain  possibilities 
(without  telling  him  how  to  accomplish  them)  and  also  gave  him 
a  stimulus  to  work  some  original  *'stunts"  with  the  apparatus. 
The  chief  function  of  the  card  was  to  prevent  floundering  and 
waste  of  time. 


The  Procedure  Used  111 

As  regards  the  kind  of  equipment,  most  of  it  was  taken  from 
the  commercial  toy  outfits ;  so  as  to  try  out  the  workableness  of 
the  material.  In  a  few  cases  commercial  apparatus  was  used; 
but  always  where  there  were  no  essential  differences  between  the 
apparatus  used  in  the  Play  Shop  and  the  kind  bought  from 
Gilbert,  for  example.  Also,  in  a  few  cases  the  apparatus  was 
"home-made." 

The  spirit  of  the  play  was  genuine  throughout.  Not  only 
did  the  boys  come  of  their  own  volition  and  for  no  further 
rewards  than  the  activity  itself,  but  they  would  stay  as  long  as 
they  could  before  being  put  out. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  encountered  by  the  instructor 
was  the  tendency  for  the  play  period  to  become  a  laboratory 
period  in  the  high  school  sense.  In  this  situation  the  teacher  or 
the  manual  issues  orders  and  the  boys  follow  blindly.  Occasion- 
ally they  run  up  with  a  question  and  go  back  to  their  apparatus 
for  more  study.  The  teacher,  too,  supervises  very  closely,  criti- 
cizing, admonishing,  lecturing,  and  helping.  In  our  case  we  can 
not,  of  course,  object  to  the  laboratory  method ;  but  if  it  is  to  be 
play  as  it  occurs  at  home,  the  boy  must  be  left  pretty  completely 
to  his  own  resources.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  instructor 
made  no  attempt  to  answer  questions,  give  suggestions,  or  aid 
in  any  way.  He  sat  in  the  room,  of  course,  and  made  sure  that 
the  dozen  boys  did  not  interfere  with  each  other,  did  not  attempt 
any  dangerous  procedure,  and  saw  to  it  that  necessary  materials 
were  forthcoming.  The  boys  understood  that  sometime  during 
the  week  they  could  see  their  instructor  during  recess  and  discuss 
with  him  any  of  their  problems  and  proposed  projects,  just  as  they 
could  bring  to  him  problems  and  projects  arising  out  of  their 
class  work,  their  home  study,  or  any  other  source.*  This  pro- 
cedure was  strange  in  the  beginning;  but  the  boys  soon  became 
habituated  to  it  and  oblivious  to  any  person  or  thing  in  the  room 
not  connected  with  their  immediate  task. 

The  card  became  very  important  in  the  successful  carrying  on 
of  these  play  periods.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  print  some  of  them 
in  brief  form,  omitting  from  all  except  the  first  everything  but 
the  "Things  to  Do." 


112  After-School  Material  in  Science 

PLAYING  WITH  BATTERIES  AND  LIGHTS 

"You  need  the  following  list  of  materials.  You  will  find  them  in  a 
labelled  box  in  the  large  cabinet.  If  all  the  materials  are  not  there  ask 
the  sergeant-at-arms  or  Mr.  Meister." 

1.  Two  batteries 

2.  Two  small  bulbs 

3.  Two  small  sockets 

4.  A  spool  of  wire 

5.  A  push-button 

6.  A  small  screw-driver 

7.  A  pair  of  pliers 

"In  the  list  below  are  some  things  which  other  boys  before  you  have 
done  with  this  material.  You  might  try  to  see  if  you  too  can  do  them. 
But  there  are  many  other  things  possible  than  just  the  ones  listed  below. 
If  you  can  think  up  and  work  out  some  new  'stunts'  or  'inventions'  you  will 
be  allowed  to  present  them  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  Club." 

Things  to  Do  : — 

1.  Light  a  bulb  with  the  two  batteries  connected  in  series. 

2.  Light  a  bulb  with  the  two  batteries  connected  in  parallel. 

3.  Light  the  two  bulbs  connected  in  series. 

4.  Light  the  two  bulbs  connected  in  parallel. 

5.  Press  the  button  and  light  both  lights  dim. 

6.  Press  and  light  them  bright. 

7.  Connect  so  that  pressing  button  makes  one  lamp  dim  and  the  other 

bright. 

8.  Connect  so  that  pressing  button  puts  lights  out. 

PLAYING  WITH  A  MOTOR 

Things  to  Do: — 

1.  Run  the  motor,  using  a  bar  magnet. 

2.  Reverse  the  motor. 

3.  Take  it  apart  and  put  it  together  again. 

4.  Make  new  brushes.* 

5.  Make  the  motor  do  some  work. 

*In  the  Play  Shop  there  are  always  kept  a  number  of  helpful  books  on 
science.  When  a  boy  is  "stumped"  he  is  encouraged  to  "dig  out"  the  nec- 
essary help  from  the  book,  if  possible. 

PLAYING  WITH  A  CHEMICAL  BATTERY 

Things  to  Do  : — 

1.  Break  open  an  old  used-up  battery.     (Save  the  zinc  cup  and  the 

carbon  rod.) 

2.  Dissolve  the  sal-ammoniac  in  the  cup  and  make  a  new  battery. 

3.  Ring  bells,  light  lights  and  run  motors  with  the  battery  made. 

4.  If  it  doesn't  last  long,  increase  its  length  of  life. 

5.  Bring  an  old  battery  to  life. 


The  Procedure  Used  113 

PLAYING  WITH  WIRELESS 
Things  to  Do  :— 

\.    Get  sparks  from  the  induction  coil. 

2.  Wire  up  the  sending  set. 

3.  Wire  up  the  receiving  set. 

4.  Send  code  messages. 

5.  Let  your  partner  put  faults  in  the  wiring  and  you  discover  them 

and  fix  them.    Do  the  same  for  your  partner. 

PLAYING  WITH  THE  TELEGRAPH 

Things  to  Do  : — 

1.  Make  the  sounder  work. 

2.  Make  it  work  with  the  key. 

3.  Stretch  the  wires  and  connect. 

4.  Learn  the  code  and  send  and  receive  messages. 

5.  Fix  up  faults  that  your  partner  puts  into  the  connections  and  then 

do  the  same  for  your  partner. 

PLAYING  WITH  THE  DYNAMO  PLANT 
Things  to  Do:— 

1.  Generate  enough  current  to  ring  a  bell,  and  light  a  light. 

2.  Wire  up  a  five-room  house  and  supply  it  with  current. 

3.  Short-circuit  the  dynamo. 

4.  Generate  current  which  will  turn  a  motor  and  attach  belt  from 

motor  to  dynamo. 

PLAYING  WITH  MAGNETS 
Things  to  Do  :— 

1.  Make  the  compass  needle  spin  around  by  bringing  a  bar  mag- 

net near. 
♦In  all  cases  where  a  boy  does  not  know  the  meaning  of  some  technical 
term  or  the  name  of  a  part,  he  can  ask  the  instructor. 

2.  Lift  nails  and  iron  filings  through  paper  and  through  glass. 

3.  String  as  many  nails  as  you  can  on  the  end  of  a  magnet. 

4.  Make  a  needle  into  a  magnet. 

5.  Make  an  iron  nail  into  an  electromagnet. 

6.  Make  a  floating  needle  compass  by  sticking  a  magnetized  needle 

through  a  piece  of  cork. 

7.  Destroy  the  magnetism  which  the  needle  has. 

PLAYING  WITH  THE  RAILROAD  OUTFIT 
Things  to  Do  :— 

1.  Run  the  engine  alone. 

2.  Reverse  it. 

3.  Attach  the  cars  and  run  the  engine. 

4.  Reverse  the  engine. 

5.  Carry  the  heaviest  load  possible. 

6.  Climb  the  steepest  hill  possible. 

7.  Go  as  fast  as  you  can  around  the  curves, 


114  After-School  Material  in  Science 

PLAYING  WITH  THE  CAMERA 
Things  to  Do  :— 

1.  Take  the  lenses  out  and  put  them  in  again. 

2.  Focus  the  room  electric  light  on  a  sheet  of  paper  with  the  camera 

lens. 

3.  Take  the  finder  apart  and  put  it  together  again. 

4.  Take  a  picture  of  your  work  bench. 

5.  Make  a  pin-hole  camera. 

PLAYING  WITH  THE  STEAM  ENGINE 
Things  to  Do  :— 
L    Get  up  steam  by  using  a  candle  flame  as  the  source  of  heat. 

2.  Get  up  steam  by  using  a  bunsen  burner. 

3.  Operate  the  engine. 

4.  Blow  the  steam  whistle. 

5.  Run  the  drive-shaft  with  the  engine,  thereby  operating  a  motor, 

a  generator,  a  grindstone  and  a  pump. 

PLAYING  WITH  A  MAGIC  LANTERN 
Things  to  Do: — 

1.  Assemble  the  different  parts  of  our  cardboard  slide-machine. 

2.  Operate  the  small  post-card  projector  which  uses  a  battery  lamp 

as  the  source  of  light. 

3.  Connect  up  the  real  machine. 

4.  Get  the  proper  focus  at  different  distances. 

5.  Show  pictures  as  small  as  possible  and  as  large  as  possible. 

PLAYING  WITH   SPRING  MOTOR  TOYS 
Things  to  Do:— 

1.  Operate  the  "Tank,"  the  Battleship,  the  Motor  Boat,  the  Automo- 

bile, the  Railroad  Engine  and  the  Submarine. 

2.  See  how  long  each  runs  with  one  winding. 

3.  Try  to  put  a  brake  on  the  different  engines  by  holding  back  each 

gear-wheel  in  turn. 

4.  Count  the  number  of  gears  and  the  number  of  teeth  in  each. 

PLAYING  WITH  MECCANO  AND'ERECTOR 
On  this  card  the  boy  was  told  to  make  at  least  three  Meccano  models 
and  three  Erector  models.     One  of  each  he  had  to  do  in  the  shop;  the 
other  four  he  could  do  at  home  and  bring  to  club.    It  was  not  difficult  to 
get  boys  to  construct  models  which  involved  the  principles  of 

(a)  the  wheel  and  axle 

(b)  the  pulley 

(c)  the  lever 

(d)  the  screw 

(e)  the  crank 

(f)  belt  drives 

(g)  gear  arrangements  for  special  reduction 


The  Procedure  Used  115 

PLAYING  WITH  CHEMCRAFT 

The  manual  served  in  the  place  of  a  card.  Typical  units  were  chosen 
which  in  addition  to  being  among  the  more  popular  and  more  workable 
experiments  were  also  illustrative  of 

(a)  factual  chemistry;  that  is,  chemical  knowledge  and  informa- 
tion and  first-hand  experiences  with  chemical  phenomena. 

(b)  larger  principles;  that  is,  certain  relationships  existing  between 
many  of  the  phenomena  and  experiences  that  might  eventuate 
in  the  laws  of  chemical  science. 

In  the  first  group,  the  play  exercises  consisted  of  the  following : 

1.  Oxygen  and  Burning 

2.  Hydrogen 

3.  Carbon  Dioxide 

4.  Glass 

5.  Soap 

6.  Fireworks 

In  the  second  group,  the  play  units  consisted  of  experiments  1  to  20, 
in  which  are  treated  the  general  ideas  of  neutralization  (acids,  bases  and 
alkalis),  combination  of  elements,  decomposition  and  displacement  of  ele- 
ments. 

To  recapitulate,  the  extra-curricular  training  for  1920-1921 
consisted  of  the  following: 


1. 

Batteries  and  Lights 

2. 

The  Electric  Motor 

a 

The  Electric  Battery 

4. 

Wireless 

5. 

The  Telegraph 

6. 

The  Electric  Power  Plant 

7. 

Magnets 

8. 

The  Railroad  Outfit 

9. 

The  Camera 

10. 

The  Thermometer 

11. 

The  Steam  Engine 

12. 

The  Magic  Lantern 

13. 

Spring  Motor  Toys 

14. 

The  Phonograph 

15. 

The  Shocking  Machine 

16. 

Meccano  and  Erector 

17. 

Oiemcraft 

18. 

Chemcraft 

19. 

Chemcraft 

20. 

Chemcraft 

Upon  these  items  was  based  the  year's  course  of  study.  Groups 
!A  and  B,  who  received  the  instruction,  met  with  their  teacher 


116  After-School  Material  in  Science 

forty  times.  The  organization  of  the  material  was  necessarily 
different  from  the  list  above.  The  material  was  first  graded  for 
difficulty  and  then  grouped ;  so  that  oft-recurring  principles  could 
be  presented  early  in  the  course.  The  units,  however,  were  not 
merged.  The  sequence  of  topics  was  roughly  as  follows:  Bat- 
teries, magnets,  the  telegraph,  the  electric  light,  the  motor,  the 
railroad  engine,  Faraday's  experiment  (dynamo),  the  shocking 
machine,  wireless,  the  magic  lantern,  the  camera  and  photography, 
the  thermometer,  the  steam-engine,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon 
dioxide,  and  the  mechanical  principles  involved  in  Meccano  and 
Erector  constructions.  Each  lesson  was  a  fully  developed  teach- 
ing unit,  involving  apparatus,  demonstrations,  class  discussions, 
pupil  reports,  home  assignments,  reviews,  note-book  work  and 
quizzes. 

The  class-work,  in  every  way  but  one,  was  typical  of  the  usual 
curricular  situation.  The  tendency  to  digress  into  other  related 
topics  and  fields  of  science  was  carefully  checked  so  that  there 
would  be  time  enough  for  all  twenty  units.  As  it  was,  several 
of  the  play  units  were  omitted  because  of  lack  of  time.  In  the 
ordinary  teaching  situation  there  would  be  less  mechanism;  that 
is,  with  children  of  this  particular  age.  In  the  case  of  the  average 
high  school  science  course,  however,  there  is  just  as  much  if 
not  greater  adherence  to  a  rigid  program.  It  is  significant  to  note 
that  more  content  was  covered  per  unit  of  time  by  the  extra- 
curricular than  by  the  curricular. 

During  the  year  1919-1920  there  were  in  all  ten  units  of  over- 
lapping content  between  the  curricular  and  the  extra-curricular. 
These  ten  were  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  magnets,  oxygen, 
carbon  dioxide,  the  camera,  the  phonograph,  the  battery,  pulleys 
and  gearing  arrangements.  At  the  end  of  the  year  four  types 
of  uniform  tests  were  given  to  Groups  A,  B,  and  C.  (The  sched- 
ule did  not  permit  of  giving  these  tests  to  Group  D.)  There  was 
first  the  traditional  type  of  test  that  teachers  usually  give  to  find 
out  what  knowledge  their  pupils  have  carried  away.  Second,  a 
test  was  arranged  in  which  a  series  of  phenomena  were  enacted 
before  the  class.  Twenty  phenomena  were  chosen  (roughly 
two  from  each  of  the  ten  units)  which  involved  the  essential 
knowledge  or  appreciations  of  the  overlapping-  material  for  the 
year.     By  means  of  apparatus  the  examiner  performs,  one  after 


The  Procedure  Used  117 

another,  each  of  the  twenty  experiments.  After  each  experiment 
the  class  is  given  two  minutes  in  which  to  write  their  expla- 
nation and  understanding  of  what  they  have  seen.  A  third  type 
of  test  was  a  practical  or  manipulatory  test.  In  this  each  pupil 
is  asked  to  do  ten  tasks  with  actual  apparatus.  Again,  these  tasks 
were  based  on  the  ten  "overlapping"  units.  Finally,  as  a  measure 
of  constructive  ability,  the  Stenquist  Box  Test  was  used  both  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year  and  at  the  end. 

FINAL  TEST— TRADITIONAL  TYPE— 1919-1920 

1.  Who  invented  the  telegraph? 

2.  Name  the  important  parts  of  the  telegraph. 

3.  Explain  how  each  part  you  have  named  above  works.  (Use  a  dia- 
gram, if  you  wish,  to  help  you  explain.) 

4.  Make  a  diagram  showing  how  the  different  parts  must  be  connected 
in  order  to  send  a  message  from  one  city  to  another. 

5.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  using  "a  ground"  as  one  of  the  wires. 

6.  Who  invented  the  telephone? 

7.  Name  the  important  parts  of  a  simple  telephone. 

8.  Explain  how  each  part  you  have  named  above,  works.  (Use  a  dia- 
gram, if  you  wish,  to  help  you  explain.) 

9.  Make  a  diagram  showing  how  the  different  parts  must  be  connected 
in  order  that  two  persons  may  talk  to  each  other  over  a  short  dis- 
tance. 

10.  Why  does  the  simple  telephone  fail  over  very  long  distances? 

11.  What  improvement  has  been  invented  which  enables  us  to  use  the 
telephone  for  long  distances? 

12.  Explain  why  two  telephone  receivers  when  connected  together,  can 
be  used  as  a  telephone  (to  talk  through  and  to  listen  to)  over  short 
distances. 

13.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  "receiver-hook"? 

14.  What  is  a  lodestone? 

15.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  permanent  magnet  and  a  temporary 
magnet  ? 

16.  What  is  the  advantage  in  bending  magnets  into  a  horseshoe  shape  ? 

17.  What  is  there  in  a  compass  which  enables  us  to  tell  directions  ?  Ex- 
plain. 

18.  Explain  how  you  would  make  a  magnet  out  of  a  piece  of  iron. 

19.  How  would  you  increase  the  strength  of  a  soft-iron  magnet? 

20.  Why  does  it  hurt  a  watch  to  keep  it  in  the  presence  of  strong  mag- 
nets? 

21.  How  could  you  make  a  permanent  magnet  lose  its  magnetism? 

22.  What  portion  of  the  air  is  oxygen? 

23.  Where  do  we  get  our  supply  of  oxygen? 

24.  Give  all  the  reasons  you  can  why  oxygen  is  so  important  in  our  lives. 


118  After-School  Material  in  Science 

25.  Describe  how  we  made  oxygen.     (Make  a  diagram  to  show  how  we 
collected  the  oxygen.) 

26.  What  happens  when  a  piece  of  wood  with  a  glowing  spark  is  thrust 
into  a  bottle  of  pure  oxygen? 

27.  What  would  happen  to  a  human  being  if  confined  in  a  room  full 
of  pure  oxygen? 

28.  Explain  what  happens  when  a  piece  of  iron  rusts. 

29.  Make  a  drawing  showing  how  a  pin-hole  camera  can  form  a  picture. 

30.  How  can  the  picture  made  by  a  pin-hole  camera  be  made  larger  or 
smaller?  ,      ;    '^Jl 

31.  How  does  a  lens  instead  of  a  pin-hole  improve  the  camera? 

32.  What  serves  as  the  film  in  the  case  of  the  pin-hole  camera? 

33.  Name  the  important  parts  of  a  kodak  folding-camera, 

34.  Make  a  drawing  showing  how  the  "finder"  works. 

35.  Explain  the  purpose  of  the  "M-F"  scale. 

^.  Explain  the  purpose  of  the  "25-50-100-B.T."  scale. 

37.  Explain  the  purpose  of  the  "4-8-16-32-64"  scale. 

38.  What  differences  are  there  between  the  camera  and  the  human  eye? 

39.  Name  the  important  parts  of  the  phonograph. 

40.  Explain  how  a  song  is  recorded. 

41.  Has  every  phonograph  a  horn?    What  is  the  purpose  of  the  horn? 

42.  What  furnishes  the  power  to  turn  the  platform? 

43.  What  keeps  the  platform  turning  steadily? 

44.  Explain  why  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  platform  turning  steadily. 

45.  Explain  why  long  needles  are  called  "soft  needles"  and  short  ones 
"loud." 

46.  Why  can  Edison  records  not  be  played  on  all  machines? 

47.  What  do  you  find  in  a  used-up  battery  when  you  break  it  open? 

48.  What  differences,  if  any,  would  you  find  inside  of  a  battery  that  is 
not  used-up  ? 

49.  Explain  how  the  current  in  a  battery  is  made. 

50.  What  happens  inside  the  battery  when  all  the  current  is  used  up? 

51.  What  is  meant  by  "short-circuiting"  a  battery?  Explain  what  hap- 
pens inside  the  battery. 

52.  What  is  the  voltage  of  a  battery? 

53.  How  many  amperes  can  a  new  battery  give? 

54.  What  are  pulleys?    How  are  they  used? 

55.  With  one  pulley  fixed  to  the  ceiling  and  one  attached  to  a  table 
weighing  100  pounds,  how  much  pull  will  it  take  to  keep  the  table 
moving  upwards? 

56.  With  two  pulleys  attached  to  the  table  and  two  to  the  ceiling,  what 
would  the  pull  be? 

57.  How  far  up  would  the  table  go  in  the  case  of  the  double  pulleys 
when  12  feet  of  rope  lay  coiled  at  your  feet? 


The  Procedure  Used  119 

58.  How  could  one  man  by  means  of  pulleys  hold  his  own  in  a  tug-of- 
war  against  ten  men  each  as  strong  as  himself? 

A  and  B  turn  together 
A=10  teeth 
B=36  teeth 
C=12  teeth 
D=40  teeth 

59.  If  B  turns  around  10  times  a 
minute,  how  fast  does  C 
turn? 

60.  How  fast  does  D  turn? 

61.  Which  wheel  gives  the 
greatest  power? 

62.  How  would  you  gear  a  motor  that  you  wished  to  use  as  an  electric 
fan? 

63.  How  would  you  gear  a  motor  that  you  wished  to  turn  a  grind- 
stone with? 

64.  What  portion  of  the  air  is  carbon  dioxide? 

65.  Where  does  the  supply  of  carbon  dioxide  come  from? 

66.  Where  does  this  supply  go  to? 

67.  What  happens  when  a  burning  piece  of  wood  is  thrust  into  a  bottle 
full  of  carbon  dioxide? 

68.  Describe  how  we  made  carbon  dioxide.     (Make  a  diagram  to  show 
how  we  collected  the  carbon  dioxide.) 

69.  How  does  the  fire-extinguisher  put  out  a  fire? 

70.  How  is  this  gas  used  in  the  process  of  making  bread? 

Time  Allowed:    3  periods  of  1  hour  and  5  minutes  each 

An  average  of  3  minutes  on  each  question 

FINAL  TEST— VISUAL  TYPE— 1919-1920 

1.  A  wire  is  wound  around  a  large  iron  nail.  The  nail  is  stuck  down 
into  a  box  of  tacks.  It  is  brought  out  again  without  any  tacks  stick- 
ing to  it.  Then  a  battery  is  connected  to  the  coil  of  wire  and  it  ex- 
hibits strong  magnetic  properties  when  stuck  into  the  box  of  tacks. 

2.  A  magnet  is  allowed  to  pick  up  a  nail.  To  the  nail  another  nail  is 
touched.  The  second  nail  is  held  fast.  To  the  second  a  third  is 
attached,  and  so  on  until  the  magnetic  induction  effect  becomes  too 
weak  to  hold  any  more  nails. 

3.  Faraday's  experiment,  of  generating  electricity  by  moving  a  magnet 
in  the  presence  of  a  coil  of  wire. 

4.  A  transmitter  and  a  receiver  are  connected  without  a  battery. 

5.  A  pivoted  compass  needle  is  caused  to  jump  away  when  a  magnet 
is  brought  near. 

6.  A  knitting  needle  is  rubbed  on  a  magnet. 


120  After-School  Material  in  Science 

7.  A  burning  candle,  placed  in  a  shallow  pan  in  which  there  is  about 
one  inch  of  water,  is  extinguished  by  covering  it  with  a  glass.  The 
water  rises  up  into  the  glass  to  a  higher  level  than  in  the  pan. 

8.  A  glowing  ember  is  inserted  into  a  bottle  of  oxygen. 

9.  The  windows  of  the  room  are  focussed  on  the  wall  by  a  large  read- 
ing glass. 

10.  A  camera  is  focussed  as  for  taking  a  picture. 

11.  While  a  phonograph  is  playing  the  speed  of  the  platform  is  altered. 

12.  A  phonograph  record  is  played  by  inserting  the  sharp  corner  of  a 
large  sheet  of  tin. 

13.  A  battery  is  short-circuited. 

14.  A  totally  used-up  battery  is  exhibited. 

15.  A  pulley  arrangement  is  shown  in  which  one  weight  balances  two 
weights  equal  to  its  own  weight. 

16.  To  start  the  above  pulley  arrangement  moving  a  small  additional 
weight  is  added  to  one  side. 

17.  A  grindstone  is  exhibited  showing  the  gear  arrangement. 

18.  A  Meccano  distance  indicator  is  exhibited. 

19.  Carbon  Dioxide  gas  is  poured  over  a  lighted  candle. 

20.  Breathe  into  a  jar  of  lime-water  through  a  glass  tube. 

Time  Allowed:     One  Hour. 

FINAL  TEST— PRACTICAL  TYPE-1919-1920 

1.  Boy  is  told  to  repair  a  telegraph  set  which  has  been  put  out  of  order. 

2.  Ditto  with  a  telephone  system. 

3.  He  is  given  two  magnets,  one  with  poles  marked  and  one  blank. 
He  is  told  to  determine  which  end  of  the  blank  magnet  is  north 
and  which  is  south. 

4.  He  is  presented  with  five  bottles  containing  diiferent  gases :  air, 
illuminating  gas,  illuminating  gas  and  air,  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen. 
He  is  to  determine  the  contents  of  each  bottle. 

5.  He  is  told  to  adjust  a  camera  for  taking  a  time  exposure  of  a  cer- 
tain object. 

6.  He  is  told  to  put  together  a  phonograph  which  has  been  taken 
apart. 

7.  He  is  told  to  make  a  battery.    The  necessary  parts  are  available. 

8.  He  is  told  to  arrange  a  set  of  pulleys  so  that  one  weight  will  lift 
four  times  its  own  weight. 

9.  He  is  given  the  gears  that  control  the  motion  of  the  bands  of  a  clock 
and  told  to  arrange  them  so  as  to  obtain  the  12  to  1  ratio  in  speeds. 

10.  He  is  told  to  make  a  bottle  of  carbon  dioxide.  The  necessary  mate- 
rials are  available. 

Time  allowed :    One  hour  and  fifteen  minutes. 

During  1920-1921  similar  tests  were  devised  on  the  basis  of 
the  larger  number  of  units  common  to  both  the  play  and  the 
teaching.    The  number  of  questions  per  topic  was  reduced  some- 


The  Procedure  Used  121 

what  in  order  to  avoid  making  the  written  examination  last  too 
long.  In  all  there  were  three  to  five  questions  for  each  unit, 
making  in  all  eighty  questions.  Three  periods  were  used  for  the 
test,  allowing,  as  before,  two  to  three  minutes  for  each  question. 
The  questions  were  as  follows  : 

FINAL  TEST  TRADITIONAL  TYPE— 1920-1921 

1.  Make  a  diagram  showing  how  you  would  connect  six  'batteries  in 
series.    Make  another,  connecting  them  in  parallel. 

2.  How  many  volts  would  the  first  connection  give  you  ?    The  second  ? 

3.  Make  a  diagram  showing  how  you  would  connect  six  3-volt  lamps 
so  that  they  burn  properly  on  ten  batteries. 

4.  Which  wire  will  get  hottest,  a  copper  wire  one-sixteenth  inch  thick 
■*  and  two  feet  long,  or  an  iron  wire  one-sixteenth  inch  thick  and  three 

feet  long,  or  a  nichrome  wire  one-eighth  inch  thick  and  100  feet  long? 

5.  On  what  three  things  does  the  resistance  of  a  wire  depend? 

6.  Describe  Faraday's  experiment. 

7.  Name  the  parts  of  a  dynamo. 

8.  Make  a  drawing  showing  how  these  parts  are  connected. 

9.  What  change  would  you  make  in  a  direct  current  dynamo  if  you 
wished  it  to  generate  alternating  current?     Why? 

10.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  dynamo  and  a  motor? 

11.  What  would  you  need  to  do  to  make  a  motor  generate  electricity? 

12.  Why  is  it  impossible  for  a  motor  to  be  driving  a  dynamo  and  the 
current  thus  generated  to  be  used  to  drive  the  motor? 

13.  Explain  why  a  motor  turns. 

14.  Make  a   list  of   all  the  necessary  steps  to  be  taken   in  making  a 
thermometer. 

15.  Why  must  the  mercury  or  kerosene  be  boiled  in  the  process? 

16.  68°  F.  is  equal  to  what  temperature  on  the  C.  scale? 

17.  What  do  you  find  in  a  used-up  battery  when  you  break  it  open? 

18.  What  differences,  if  any,  would  you  find  in  a  battery  that  is  not 
used  up? 

19.  Explain  how  a  battery  is  made. 

20.  What  happens  inside  a  battery  when  all  its  current  is  used  up? 

21.  What  is  meant  by  "short-circuiting"  a  battery?  What  happens  inside? 

22.  What  is  the  voltage  of  a  battery? 

2Z.  How  many  amperes  can  a  new  battery  give? 

24.  Make  a  drawing  showing  how  a  pin-hole  camera  can  form  a  picture. 

25.  How  does  a  lens  instead  of  a  pin-hole  improve  the  camera? 

26.  What  serves  as  the  film  in  case  of  the  pin-hole  camera? 

28.  Make  a  drawing  showing  how  the  "finder"  works. 

29.  List  all  the  necessary  steps  in  snapping  a  picture.    Give  reasons  for 
each  step. 

30.  Explain  how  pictures  are  developed. 

31.  How  are  wireless  waves  sent  out? 


122  After-School  Material  in  Science 

32.  How  are  wireless  messages  received? 

33.  Name  the  important  parts  of  a  telegraph  system, 

34.  Make  a  diagram  showing  how  the  different  parts  are  connected  so 
that  the  complete  system  can  operate. 

36.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  using  a  "ground"  as  one  of  the  wires. 

36.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  temporary  magnet  and  a  permanent 
magnet? 

37.  Explain  how  a  compass  operates  in  enabling  one  to  tell  where 
"north"  is. 

38.  Give  two  ways  in  which  a  piece  of  steel  can  be  magnetized. 

39.  Give  two  ways  in  which  a  steel  magnet  can  be  destroyed. 

40.  Why  does  it  hurt  a  watch  to  keep  it  in  the  presence  of  a  strong 
magnet  ? 

41.  What  portion  of  the  air  is  oxgyen? 

42.  Where  do  we  get  our  supply  of  oxygen? 

43.  Describe  how  we  made  oxygen.  (Make  a  diagram  to  show  how  we 
collected  the  gas.) 

44.  What  happens  when  a  glowing  spark  on  a  piece  of  wood  is  thrust 
into  a  bottle  of  oxygen? 

45.  What  would  happen  to  a  human  being  if  confined  in  a  room  full 
of  pure  oxygen? 

46.  Explain  what  happens  when  a  piece  of  iron  rusts. 

47.  Where  does  hydrogen  come  from? 

48.  What  is  it  used  for? 

49.  When  will  hydrogen  burn? 

50.  What  is  formed  when  hydrogen  burns? 

51.  How  is  hydrogen  made? 

52.  What  is  "peroxide"? 

53.  Where  does  the  supply  of  carbon  dioxide  come  from? 

54.  How  can  it  be  made? 

55.  WTiat  happens  when  a  burning  piece  of  wood  is  thrust  into  a  bottle 
of  carbon  dioxide? 

56.  How  is  this  gas  used  in  bread-making? 

57.  How  is  it  used  in  vichy  or  other  soft  drinks? 

58.  How  is  it  used  by  plants  ? 

59.  What  are  pulleys?    Why  are  they  used? 

60.  With  one  pulley  fixed  to  the  ceiling  and  one  attached  to  a  table 
weighing  100  lbs.,  how  much  pull  will  it  take  to  keep  the  table  mov- 
ing upwards? 

61.  With  two  pulleys  attached  to  the  table  and  two  to  the  ceiling  what 
would  the  pull  be? 

62.  How  far  up  would  the  table  go  in  the  case  of  the  double  pulleys 
when  twelve  feet  of  rope  lay  coiled  on  the  floor? 

63.  Show  in  a  diagram  how,  by  means  of  pulleys,  one  man  can  hold  his 
own  in  a  tug-of-war  against  ten  men  each  as  strong  as  himself? 

64.  See  questions  59  to  63,  inclusive,  of  the  1919-1920  list. 

65.  See  questions  59  to  63,  inclusive,  of  the  1919-1920  list. 


The  Procedure  Used  123 

66.  See  questions  59  to  63,  inclusive,  of  the  1919-1920  list. 

67.  See  questions  59  to  63,  inclusive,  of  the  1919-1920  list. 

68.  See  questions  59  to  63,  inclusive,  of  the  1919-1920  list 

69.  Why  do  trains  slow  down  when  going  round  curves? 

70.  Make  a  diagram  showing  a  dynamo,  trolley  tracks,  trolley-wire,  trol- 
ley car  motor,  and  how  they  are  all  connected. 

71.  Why  are  not  birds  shocked  to  death  when  they  alight  on  the  bare 
trolley  wire? 

72.  What  supplies  the  energy  with  which  a  "tank"  can  climb  a  hill? 

73.  Why  is  it  easy  to  wind  up  a  spring-motor  railroad  engine  with  a 
key  and  almost  impossible  to  do  so  without  it? 

74.  Describe  briefly  how  steam  drives  the  steam-engine. 

75.  Why  must  water  be  pumped  into  the  boiler  when  the  engine  is  oper- 
ating ? 

76.  What  protects  the  boiler  against  explosions?    Explain. 

77.  How  is  the  waste  steam  coming  from  the  exhaust  pipe  sometimes 
used? 

78.  Why  are  the  pictures  in  a  magic  lantern  inserted  up-side  down? 

79.  Why  do  slides  show  so  much  brighter  than  post-cards  on  the  screen? 

80.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  inside  lens  or  set  of  lenses   (the  con- 
denser) ? 

FINAL  TEST— VISUAL  TYPE— 1920-1921 

1.  Rotating  a  pivoted  compass  needle  with  a  magnet. 

2.  Stringing  nails  on  the  end  of  a  magnet. 

3.  Stroking  a  steel  needle  on  the  end  of  a  bar  magnet. 

4.  Making  an  electromagnet. 

5.  Focusing  the  windows  on  the  wall  by  means  of  a  large  reading  glass. 

6.  Exhibiting  a  photographic  negative. 

7.  Focusing  a  camera  for  taking  a  picture  of  a  near  object. 

8.  Exhibiting  batteries  connected  in  series.  '* 

9.  Exhibiting    four    3-volt   bulbs   connected    in   series.     The   boys   are 
asked  to  tell  how  many  batteries  are  necessary  to  light  them  properly. 

10.  Exhibiting  batteries  connected  in  parallel. 

11.  The  same  question  is  asked  of  3  similar  bulbs  in  parallel. 

12.  Heating  a  wire  to  the  glowing  point  by  means  of  an  electric  current. 

13.  Varying  the  length  of  the  above  wire  so  as  to  make  it  glow  more 
brightly. 

14.  Operating  a  St.  Louis  motor;  and  then  taking  the  magnets  away 
so  as  to  make  it  stop  turning. 

15.  Reversing  one  magnet  in  the  above  motor  so  as  to  have  two  north 
poles  or  two  south  poles  as  a  magnetic  field. 

16.  Moving  a  magnet  in  the  presence  of  a  coil  which  is  connected  with 
a  milli-voltmeter. 

17.  Making  a  bulb  grow  dim  and  then  bright  by  increasing  th«  speed 
of  a  hand-turned  generator. 


124  After-School  Material  in  Science 

18.  Expanding  the  air  in  a  flask  by  heating.  The  flask  has  its  only 
outlet  submerged  under  water  so  that  the  bubbles  of  air  are  clearly 
seen. 

19.  Allowing  the  air  to  cool  and  therefore  contract,  so  that  the  water 
can  be  seen  rising  in  the  flask. 

20.  By  closing  with  one's  fingers  the  air  holes  of  a  bunsen  burner,  and 
then  opening  them  again,  the  flame  is  turned  yellow  and  then  blue 
again. 

21.  Extinguishing  a  candle,  burning  at  the  bottom  of  a  pan  in  which 
there  is  an  inch  of  water,  by  covering  it  with  a  glass  or  jar. 

22.  Throwing  a  piece  of  chalk  into  a  beaker  of  hydrochloric  acid  (so 
labelled). 

23.  Breathing  through  a  tube  into  a  glass  of  lime  water. 

24.  Exhibiting  a  pulley  arrangement  in  which  one  weight  balances  two 
weights  each  as  heavy  as  itself. 

25.  Exhibiting  the  gears  of  a  grindstone. 

26.  Short-circuiting  a  battery. 

27.  Exhibiting  a  vertical  section  of  a  dry  cell. 

28.  Operating  the  "cartesian  diver"  experiment,  using  for  the  "diver"  a 
small  inverted  flask,  in  which  the  changing  water  level  can  be  seen. 

29.  Operating  an  induction  coil  to  get  a  large  spark  across  the  secondary 
terminals. 

30.  Operating  a  telegraphic  sounder. 

31.  Operating  a  magneto  to  ring  a  bell. 

2)2.  Inserting  a  glowing  spark  on  a  piece  of  wood  into  a  bottle  of  oxygen. 

33.  Exploding  a  mixture  of  illuminating  gas  and  air. 

34.  Exhibiting  a  floating  balloon  filled  with  hydrogen. 

35.  Exhibiting  a  hanging  balloon  filled  with  air. 

Z6.  Striking  a  tuning  fork  and  placing  its  base  aganst  the  blackboard. 
Z7.  Operating  a  siphon. 

^.  Inverting  a  bottle  filled  with  water.  The  mouth  of  the  bottle  is 
covered  with  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth, 

39.  Rubbing  a  hard-rubber  rod  with  a  piece  of  fur  and  picking  up  pieces 
of  paper  with  the  electrically  charged  rod. 

40.  Blowing  into  a  wide  glass  tube  while  changing  the  length  of  the 
latter  by  lowering  it  into  a  jar  of  water. 

time  Allowed :— 80  Minutes 

""  FINAL  TEST— PRACTICAL  TYPE— 1920-1921 

1.  Comiect  two  bulbs  so  that  one  is  on  all  the  time  and  the  other  goes 
on  when  you  press  the  button. 

2.  Make  the  bell  ring  (the  vibrator  scfeW  is  t)ut  out  of  adjustment). 

3.  Make  the  motor  run  (2  defective  brushes  are  put  in,  which  can  be 
fiied  by  bending  them  down  so  as  to  touch  the  commutator). 

4.  Make  a  wet  battery. 

5.  Fix  up  a  wireless  sending  and  deceiving  outfit. 

6.  Detect  a  fault  in  a  telegraph  system. 


The  Procedure  Used  125 

7.  Make  a  dynamo  generate  enough  current  to  light  a  bulb.     (The  field 
magnets  are  disconnected.) 

8.  Which  end  of  a  given  magnet  is  north  and  which  south?     (He  is 
given  a  marked  magnet  and  a  blank  one.) 

9.  Make  an  electromagnet. 

10.  Make  the  electric  train  run.     (The  tracks  are  short-circuited.) 

11.  Adjust  the  camera  for  taking  a  time  exposure  of  an  object  in  the 
room. 

12.  Blow  a  thermometer  bulb. 

13.  Make  a  drive-belt  for  the  governor  of  the  steam  engine. 

14.  Connect  the  magic  lantern  and  focus  on  the  screen  the  picture  of  a 
post  card. 

15.  Arrange  a  set  of  pulleys  so  that  one  pound  will  lift  about  four  pounds. 

16.  Fix  up  the  gears  controlling  the  hands  of  a  clock  so  that  the  min- 
ute hand  moves  twelve  times  as  fast  as  the  hour  hand. 

17.  Make  and  collect  a  bottle  of  carbon  dioxide. 

18.  Make  and  collect  a  bottle  of  hydrogen. 

19.  Make  and  collect  a  bottle  of  oxygen. 

20.  Collect  a  bottle  of  illuminating  gas. 

Time  Allowed  : — Two  hours. 

The  examinations  extended  over  a  period  of  two  weeks,  the 
Practical,  Visual  and  Stenquist  tests  interspersing  the  periods  of 
written  examinations. 

In  the  case  of  the  Stenquist  Box  Tests,  an  unfortunate  acci- 
dent caused  the  interchanging  of  three  models  between  Series  I 
and  Series  II.  In  the  original  series  the  ten  models  of  each  box 
are  so  grouped  as  to  give  a  sequence  from  easiest  to  hardest,  with 
the  average  difficulty  the  same  in  the  two  series.  Although  the 
mixed  series  used  by  the  writer  were  grouped  in  a  progressive 
sequence,  the  following  tables  show  how  the  average  difficulty 
of  Series  II  differed  from  that  of  Series  I: 


126  After-School  Material  in  Science 


THE  CORRECT  STENQUIST  SERIES  I 

Model  Difficulty 

A.  Cupboard   Catch    462 

B.  Clothes    Pin    523 

C.  Paper  Clips  (Hunt)   554 

D.  Chain    572 

E.  Bicycle   Bell    579 

F.  Rubber  Hose  Shut-off 590 

G.  Wire  Bottle  Stopper   602 

H.  Push  Button    608 

I.   Lock  No.  1  ^27 

J.   Mouse  Trap  645 


Mean=  .5762 

(Average  S.  D.  equivalent)    (obtained  from  500  6th,  7th 
and  8th  grade  boys.) 


THE  CORRECT  STENQUIST  SERIES  II 

Model  Difficulty 

A.  Pistol    .491 

B.  Elbow  Catch 503 

C.  Rope  Coupling  503 

D.  Expansion  Nut .518 

E.  Sash  Fastener   573 

F.  Expansion  Rubber  Stopper 602 

G.  Calipers    610 

H.  Paper  Clip  630 

I.    Double  Acting  Hinge 657 

J.  Lock  No.  2  683 

Mean=  .5770 


The  Procedure  Used  127 

SERIES  I— ACTUALLY  USED 
Model  Difficulty 

A.  Cupboard  Catch   462 

B.  Pistol    491 

C  Rope   Coupling    503 

D.  Expansion  Nut    518 

E.  Paper  Clip  (Hunt)    554 

F.  Sash   Fastener    573 

G.  Expansion  Rubber  Stopper 602 

H.  Lock  No.  1    627 

I.     Paper  Clip   630 

J.    Double  Acting  Hinge   657 

Mean=  .5617 


SERIES  II— ACTUALLY  USED 

Model  Difficu'lty 

A.  Elbow  Catch    503 

B.  Clothes    Pin    523 

C.  Chain    572 

D.  Bicycle  Bell  579 

E.  Rubber  Hose  Shut-off 590 

F.  Wire  Bottle  Stopper   602 

G.  Push   Button   608 

H.  Clippers    610 

I.    Mouse  Trap  645 

J.    Lock  No.  2  .683 

Mean=  .5915 


It  can  be  seen  that  the  difference  in  "mean  difficulty"  between 
the  series  actually  used  is  not  very  much  greater  than  the  cor- 
responding difference  between  the  two  correct  series  as  organ- 
ized by  Stenquist.  It  is  also  fortunate  that  the  slightly  more 
difficult  series  was  used  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  writer  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  Visual  Tests  and  the 
Practical  Tests  are  not  standardized.  In  the  former  type  of  test, 
the  writer,  in  order  to  obtain  a  guide  for  scoring  the  answers, 
gave  the  test  to  children  of  various  grades  and  teachers  of  gen- 
eral science.  This  furnished  for  most  of  the  phenomena  listed 
a  range  of  answers  from  worst  to  best.    Though  extremely  rough, 


128  After-School  Material  in  Science 

it  facilitated  the  scoring  and  enabled  two  scorers  to  vary  an  aver- 
age of  seven  per  cent  for  any  given  paper.  In  the  case  of  the 
practical  tests,  any  given  exercise  was  marked  either  right  or 
wrong.  In  the  written  tests  the  best  arbitrary  standards  in  the 
judgment  of  the  writer  were  used. 

The  standardizing  of  the  Visual  type  of  test  is  a  task  which 
lies  just  ahead  of  the  writer.  It  promises  a  consistently  high 
correlation  with  the  written  test  and  a  high  degree  of  reliability. 
It  involves  in  the  main  inexpensive  test  materials  that  can  be 
found  in  the  average  high  school  laboratory;  it  can  be  given  to 
large  numbers  at  once,  and  it  is  unique  in  that  it  does  not  tire 
the  class  to  any  appreciable  degree.  Boys  are  intensely  interested 
in  these  phenomena  that  are  enacted  before  them.  The  writer 
has  been  able  to  show  thirty  and  forty  phenomena  at  a  time 
without  noticing  a  diminution  in  the  interest  of  those  being 
tested. 


CHAPTER  VII 

EXPERIMENTAL  RESULTS  AND  DATA 

In  tables  I,  II,  III  and  IV  are  given  the  results  of  the  different 
tests  and  measures  for  1920-1921  that  were  described  in  Chapter 
VI.  Table  I  deals  with  the  group  of  boys  (Group  A)  who 
received  both  types  of  training:  the  instruction  and  the  play. 
Table  II  deals  with  those  who  received  but  the  instruction  (Group 
B).  Table  III  deals  with  those  who  engaged  in  only  the  play 
(Group  C).  Table  IV  deals  with  the  controlled  group  (Group 
D),  who  received  neither  form  of  training. 

The  I.  Q.  measurements  were  obtained  from  Dr.  Chassel,  psy- 
chologist for  the  Horace  Mann  School.  They  were  calculated 
from  the  National  Intelligence  Tests ;  and  are  not,  of  course,  as 
significant  as  the  Terman  quotients  would  be.  Also,  it  has  devel- 
oped that  the  norms  from  which  the  "mental  ages"  were  obtained 
are  not  as  reliable  as  they  were  first  thought.  More  reliable 
norms  will  soon  be  available,  and  also  a  table  by  means  of  which 
the  N.  I.  T.  quotients  may  be  transmuted  into  Terman  quotients. 
These  corrections  will  be  made.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  indications  are  that  the  effect  of  these  corrections  will  be  to 
raise  I.  Q.'s  several  points.  Thus,  the  average  Terman  I.  Q.  for 
the  Horace  Mann  School  is  116,  whereas  the  average  N.  I.  T. 
I.  Q.  is  about  106.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  these  trans- 
mutations will  act  differently  on  each  of  the  four  groups. 

The  column  Hsted  "Chronological  Age"  is  for  ages  on  Febru- 
ary 1,  1921,  whereas  the  N.  I.  T.  tests  were  given  on  November 
1,  1920.  This  will  account  for  the  apparent  discrepancy  between 
the  quotient  of  each  "mental  age"  divided  by  each  "chronological 
age"  and  the  intelligence  quotient  listed.  These  quotients  are 
correct  if  three  months  be  subtracted  from  each  chronological 
age  listed. 

In  Table  V  the  means  and  the  variabilities  of  the  four  groups 
are  compared. 

129 


130 


After-School  Material  in  Science 


TABLE  I 

Individuals         Age  Stenquist 

Group  A  Chron.  Mental  I  Q.  I.  II.     Visual    Practical  Written 

A   12.3  127  105  60%  85%  67%  50%  50% 

B    12.0  12.0  103  45  50  70  40  71 

C   12.0  15.9  135  70  78  85  70  80 

D    112  12.7  117  50  48  89  85  74 

E  10.9  13.1  124  40  32  80  ^S  72 

F   13.6  12.3  93  70  73  84  85  75 

G  11.2  13.9  127  55  86  64  80  56 

H    12.6  15.3  124  50  70  absent  absent  absent 

I    11.0  11.7  109  25  43  absent  70  30 

J   11.5  1125  101  35  40  55  65  52 

K 11.9  10.4  90  60  72  56  70  68 

L   12.5  12.3  101  50  87  77  100  49 

M    12.6  122  99  40  58  37  60  49 

N  13.6  11.0  83  45  48  90  80  79 

O  112  11.6  106  30  49  60  80  71 

P  13.7  9.3  70  65  75  82  55  64 

Q  12.6  15.4  125  80  84  93  90  82 

R  11.4  12.6  114  60  65  80  95  72 

S    12.5  14.0  115  75  66  56  75  62 

T   11.9  14.7  126  65  72  82  90  66 

U  11.6  13.9  123  50  53  82  40  72 

V  11.6  11.6  103  80  80  71  95  73 

W   ....11.9  15.7  134  40  78  58  80  64 

X  12.7  15.3  123  70  80  absent  80  36 

Y    13.8  10.8  80  65  60  84  75  79 

Z    10.9  14.1  132  55  41  88  45  87 

Mean    ...12.10  12.91  110.5  55.0  64.4  73.5  73.6  65.3 

S.  D 88  1.75  17.1  14.7  162  14.0  16.95  14.0 


Experimental  Results  and  Data  131 


TABLE  II 

Individuals         Age  Stenquist 

Group  B  Chron.  Mental  I  Q.  I.  II.  Visual    Practical  Written 

A* 11.1  10.4  97  60%  83%  49%  35%  25% 

B'  12.1  14.1  120  SO  75  68  40  59 

C 11.8  11.4  99  40  absent  absent  absent  absent 

D' 12.3  13.6  113  70  59  65  25  61 

Ei 10.5  11.6  114  20  70  51  30  54 

F'  ....11.0  13.75  129  25  41  49  40  32 

G^  11.8  11.4  99  50  47  65  45  64 

H^  ....13.1  11.2  88  50  58  60  25  44 

r  9.7  13.3  143  30  28  42  30  50 

r   12.0  13.5  116  40  30  62  55  45 

K'....11.2  16.0  148  100  81  91  55  65 

L'  12.0  10.9  93  35  withdrew  from  school 

M'....12.0  10.8  93  80  40  66  30  68 

N'  ....12.1  8.4  71  80  61  58  65  56 

O^ 11.25  13.75  125  50  68  48  40  50 

P^  10.5  15.7  153  50  55  54  45  58 

Q' 10.3  16.0  159  65  41  absent   40  51 

R' 14.0  13.3  97  6S  62  57  80  3.1 

S' 11.3  12.5  114  25  26  64  35  54 

T' 11.9  11.2  94  30  19  34  25  46 

U*  ....11.5  12.25  110  35  40  43  20  55 

V'....  12.25  12.3  104  85  65  67  40  76 

^....12.2  11.0  93  60  44  68  20  61 

XV...  11.4  1425  127  3.5  55  55  70  37 

Y* 12.3  152  125  35  14  42  35  24 


Mean  ...11.66   12.71   112.96  51.7    50.5    57.2    40.2    50.7 
S.  D 90   1.87   14.8  20.3    18.9    12.1    15.42   13.4 


132 


After-School  Material  in  Science 


TABLE  III 


Individuals         Age  Stenquist 

Group  C  Chron.  Mental  I  Q.         I.  II.     Visual    Practical  Written 

a 10.2  11 .0  111  15%  A6%  S7%  60%  46% 

b 9.9  9.6  99  80  75  46  65  27 

c 10.9  9.3  95  70  68  31  55  34 

d 10.9  11.3  106  20  56  Z7  40  16 

e 11.25  12.7  115  35  47  48  50  48 

f 10.5  8.75  85  30  40  47  50  44 

g 11.2  11.75  108  20  45  43  80  39 

h  .10.3  11.0  109  60  70  63  65  55 

i  11.25  11.1  101  60  54  42  70  39 

j  10.6  10.7  103  75  50  37  60  35 

k 9.8  14.0  146  35  45  53  50  44 

1 8.9  11.25  130  20  25  36  30  20 

m 9.9  8.9  92    5     9  36  15  22 

n 11.25  12.4  113  25  32  45  40  38 

o 11.0  11.6  108  55  53  51  65  56 

p  10.25  11.4  114  25  31  31  55  28 

q 9.75  10.25  108  25  48  46  70  42 

r 10.3  10.7  104  20  47  27  60  26 

s  9.9  12.8  132  20  39  48  40  54 

t  .: 11.2  9.25  85  30  58  32  55  34 

u 11.75  10.9  95  40  46  24  50  ZZ 


Mean  ...10.52 
S.  D 68 


10.98 
1.32 


107.6 
14.5 


36.4 
21.0 


46.9 
14.8 


41.9 
9.8 


53.6 
13.62 


37.1 
11.1 


Experimental  Results  and  Data 


133 


TABLE  IV 

Individuals  Age  Stenquist 

Group  D  Chron.  Mental  I  Q.         I.  II.  Visual    Practical  Written 

a^  10.4  11.1  109  40%  51%  28%  50%  9% 

b'  10.1  12.0  122  45  49  46  40  20 

c'  11.8  9.5  82  25  34  12  10  4 

d'  10.9  9.7  91  30  61  19  15  4 

e^  10.5  14.5  141  30  51  24  5  7 

r  10.8  9.2  87  20  20  32  0  7 

^  ....  10.25  9.9  99  50  46  31  30  3 

h'  101  8.6  87  35  20  9  5  3 

i^  9.75  12.7  133  50  45  15  15  0 

j*  9.8  10.1  105  40  48  absent  absent  absent 

le  10.9  10.25  96  40  44  40  20  13 

1*  9.9  11.9  123  45  47  25  40  10 

m*  ....  8.75  10.3  121  30  27  15  15  0 

n*  10.7  10.6  102  15  13  33  20  18 

o'  9.7  11.5  122  55  64  35  10  12 

p^  11.4  9.6  84  55  29  28  20  0 

q^  10.1  11.9  121  35  34  37  5  25 

r'  10.25  10.5  105  70  45  23  20  2 

s*  10.7  16.0  154  40  50  26  60  3 

t*  10.4  9.2  90  25  27  23  5  3 

u'  10.75  10.75  103  absent 

v'  9.7  9.8  105  absent 

w'  9.8  1225  128  30  36  m  30  10 

X*   10.0  12.0  123  25  35  31  5  7 

y^    8.8  12.1  137  35  45  33  15  21 

Mean    ...10.25  11.04  110.8  37.6  36.8  27.4  19.8  8.2 

S.  D 68  1.67  19.09   12.6  13.2  9.3  15.53  7.11 


134  After-School  Material  in  Science 


TABLE  V 

§■     Chron.       Mental  Stenquist  Stenquist 

J         Age  Age  I  Q.  I.  II.         Visual      Practical  Written 

M  S.  D.    M       S.  D.     M  S.  D.  M     S.  D.  M     S.  D.  M  S.  D.  M  S.  D.  M     S.  D. 

A  .12.1   .88  12.9     1.75  110.5  17.1  55      14.7  64.4  16.2  73.5  14.0  73.6  16.95  65.3  14.0 

B  .11.7  .90  12.7     1.87  112.96  14.8  51.7  20.3   50.5  18.9  57.2  12.1  40.2  15.42  50.7  13.4 

C    .10.5  .68  10.98  1.32  107.6  14.5  36.4  21.0  46.9  14.8  41.9  9.8  53.6  13.62  37.1  11.1 

D  .10.3  .68  11.04  1.67  110.8  19.09  37.6  12.6  36.8  13.2  27.4  9.3   19.8  15.53     8.2     7.11 

It  is  correct  to  state  that  Groups  A  and  C  were  not  selected 
groups  as  far  as  I.  Q.  or  initial  ability  in  Stenquist  is  concerned. 
In  the  case  of  I.  Q.,  the  slight  difference  between  A  and  B  and 
between  C  and  D  favors  groups  B  and  D.  Also,  if  any  compari- 
son is  to  be  made  between  the  final  accomplishments  of  those  that 
had  play  activities  alone  (C)  and  those  that  had  instruction  alone 
(B),  the  I.  Q-  difference  again  favors  group  B. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  a  strange  fact  that  boys  who  join  the 
Science  Club  (from  which  Groups  A  and  C  were  constructed) 
always  tend  to  a  slightly  lower  intelligent  quotient  than  do  boys 
who  do  not  join  the  club.  Table  VI  shows  this  for  three  differ- 
ent years : 


Experimental  Results  and  Data  135 


TABLE  VI 

Average  I.  Q.  of  those 

Average  I.  Q.  of  those 

Year 

that  join  the  Club 

that  do  not  join  Club 

1918-1919 

132.6  (Pressey) 

136.2  (Pressey) 

1919-1920 

121.8  (Terman) 

129.8  (Terman) 

1920-1921 

109.6  (N.I.T.) 

111.9  (N.I.T.) 

In  this  connection  it  is  also  significant  to  note  the  correlation 
that  exists  between  I.  Q.  and  standing  in  the  Science  Club.  (See 
Chapter  IX  as  to  the  Club  Point  Scheme.)  Table  VII  shows 
this: 

TABLE  VII 

Corelation  Coefficient  between  I.  Q. 
and  Club  Standing 
Year  For  Group  A  For  Group  C 

1918-1919  .11  —.25 

1919-1920  .14  —.01 

1920-1921  .003  —.08 


136  After-School  Material  in  Science 

In  comparing  Groups  B  and  C,  the  difference  in  age  must  be 
taken  into  account.  Groups  C  and  D,  coming  from  the  fifth 
grade,  as  compared  with  Groups  A  and  B,  who  come  from  the 
sixth  grade,  are,  on  the  average,  one  and  a  half  years  younger 
(1.5)  (chronological  age)  and  1.8  years  younger  (mental  age). 
In  order  to  determme  what  such  an  age  difference  would  mean 
in  each  of  the  final  tests  given,  Group  B  was  divided  into  two 
parts:  one  whose  average  age  was  approximately  that  of  Group 
C  and  the  other  whose  average  age  was  1-5  years  higher.  The 
same  procedure  was  adopted  to  get  the  approximate  equivalent 
difference  for  1.8  years  of  mental  age.  The  following  were  the 
results : 

TABLE  VIII 

A  difference  of  Is  Equivalent  to  a  Difference  of 

Visual  Practical  Written 

1.5  years 
chronological  age  9.79%  2>M%  A90% 

1.8  years 
mental  age  2.49%  7.45%  4.45% 

Thus,  in  Table  V  we  note  that  Group  B  scores  15.3%  higher 
than  Group  C  in  the  Visual  Test.  In  Table  VIII  we  note  that 
for  boys  in  Group  B  to  be  as  young  as  boys  of  Group  C  is  to 
score  about  ten  per  cent  lower-  For  ^'mental  age"  this  difference 
is  about  three  per  cent.  Hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  instruc- 
tion alone  was  better  than  play  alone  in  the  case  of  the  visual 
test;  but  that  this  difference  must  be  discounted  to  some  extent 
by  the  difference  in  age  existing  between  the  groups  compared. 
In  the  case  of  the  practical  test,  the  younger  group  does  consid- 
erably better  than  the  older,  in  spite  of  the  difference  of  age 
which  might  have  increased  their  score  another  4%  or  5%.  (See 
Table  VIII.)  In  the  case  of  the  written  test,  we  must  again 
allow  about  5%,  as  due  to  the  age  difference.  This  would  de- 
crease the  13.6%  difference  between  Groups  B  and  C  to  about 
8%  or  9%. 

In  the  case  of  the  Stenquist  Tests,  Group  A  was  a  little  better 
than  Group  B  to  start  with ;  but  Group  D  was  better  than  Group 
C  to  start  with.    Group  A  shows  an  increase  of  9.4  points  at  the 


Experimental  Results  and  Data  137 

end  of  the  year,  whereas  Group  B  suffers  a  drop  of  1.2  points. 
Group  C  goes  up  10.5  points,  whereas  Group  D  drops  .8  points. 
Group  C  almost  reaches  the  abihty  of  Group  B  in  Stenquist  Test 
II.  Clearly,  then,  after-school  activities  improved  this  particular 
type  of  constructive  ability. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  a  score  of  64.4  (Group  A) 
on  Stenquist  Series  II  is  reached  or  exceeded  by  only  5.4%  of 
twelve-year-olds,  only  11.3%  of  thirteen-year-olds,  only  21%  of 
fourteen-year-olds,  only  26.9%  of  fifteen-year-olds,  and  by  only 
41%  of  adult  men  (Army).  These  figures  are  obtained  from 
tables  prepared  by  J.  L.  Stenquist  from  the  scores  of  1,361  cases 
to  whom  this  test  was  given. 

In  addition  to  noting  the  gross  increases  or  decreases  in  aver- 
ages from  one  group  to  another,  it  would  be  well  to  note  certain 
correspondences  that  exist  between  the  various  tests  and  meas- 
ures of  Tables  I,  II,  III  and  IV.  In  Table  IX  are  listed  some 
coefficients  of  correlation  which  the  writer  feels  are  significant. 


TABLE  IX 

Correlation                 A 

B 

C 

D 

of                    p 

P.E. 

p           P.E. 

P 

P.E. 

P 

P.E. 

I.  Q  &  Stenquist  I  . .  .03 

.147 

^.26      .140 

.24 

.145 

.18 

.146 

I  Q.  &  Stenquist  II  .  .09 

.146 

—  .013    .151 

.36 

.134 

.51 

,111 

Stenq.  I  &  Stenq.  II.  .59 

.096 

.51      .111 

.66 

.087 

.42 

.124 

Visual  &  Practical  . .  .22 

.140 

.19      .145 

.21 

.147 

.24 

.142 

Visual  &  Written  ...  .82 

.049 

.68      .081 

.83 

.048 

.77 

.062 

Practical  i&  Written     .13 

.145 

—  .09      .150 

.35 

.135 

.092 

.149 

I.  Q.  &  Practical 07 

.147 

.32      .135     - 

-.132 

.152 

.27 

.140 

Sten.  I  &  Practical  ..   .28 

.136 

.26      .140 

.42 

.126 

.51 

.111 

To  save  time  and  because 

highly  accurate  coefficients 

were 

not 

needed,  the  formula 

p_l 

_  6  :g  D2 

N.  (N2-1) 

was  used;  and  the  reliability  coefficients  calculated  from 

P  1^.  . 

Vn" 

Of  course,  the  small  number  of  cases  upon  which  these  results 
are  based  make  the  low  coefficients  very  unreliable.  But  the 
unreliability  does  in  no  case  make  doubtful  the  following  con- 
clusions : 


138  After-School  Material  in  Science 

1.  The  intelligence  quotient  and  Stenquist  ability  show  very 
little  correspondence.  Stenquist  himself  has  never  been  able  to 
get  a  higher  coefficient  than  .4  between  I.  Q.  and  ability  in  his 
test.  Results  of  this  study  show  even  less  correlation.  If  the 
Stenquist  test  measures  a  desirable  trait,  the  generally  accepted 
I.  Q.  is  to  this  extent  a  less  valuable  general  criterion. 

2.  There  is  just  as  small  a  correspondence  between  I.  Q.  and 
the  "practical"  test.  In  the  latter  test  we  again  have  a  type  of 
ability  which  involves  what  might  be  termed  "manipulatory  intel- 
ligence." 

3.  There  is  practically  no  correspondence  between  "joining 
the  club"  and  I.  Q.,  or  between  "standing  in  the  club"  of  those 
that  join  and  their  I.  Q.     (See  Tables  VI  and  VII.) 

4.  Stenquist  ability,  on  the  other  hand,  is  but  a  slightly  better 
measure  of  performance  in  the  practical  tests. 

5.  The  visual  tests  and  the  written  tests  show  the  only  real 
and  reliable  correlations  of  the  entire  series. 

6.  Both  the  visual  and  the  written  tests  show  an  exceedingly 
low  correlation  with  the  practical  test. 

Tables  X,  XI  and  XII  give  the  results  of  the  tests  given  to  the 
groups  of  1919-1920.  During  that  year  no  Group  D  was  obtain- 
able nor  any  Stenquist  measures.  As  noted  in  Table  VI,  the 
I.  Q.'s  were  approximately  121.8  (Terman)  for  Groups  A  and 
C,  and  129.8  (Terman)  for  Group  B.  Again  there  was  a  differ- 
ence of  about  one  year  in  age  between  B  and  C. 


Experimental  Results  and  Data  139 


TABLE  X 

TABLE  XI 

Writ-       Vis- 

Prac- 

Writ- 

Vis- 

Prac- 

Gr.A 

ten          ual 

tical 

3r.  B. 

ten 

ual 

tical 

A   

.  282           85% 

60% 

A^ 

.  135 

30% 

10% 

B  

.   180           65 

70 

B' 

.  166 

50 

25 

C  

.  260           80 

70 

C^ 

.  152 

35 

25 

D 

..  140           40 

70 

D^ 

.    90 

10 

5 

E    

.  272           75 

60 

E^ 

.  174 

45 

35 

F    

.  192           65 

50 

F 

.  158 

55 

30 

G   

.  184           60 

40 

G^ 

.  202 

70 

75 

H  

.  248           80 

80 

H^  . . . . 

..  198 

60 

40 

I  

.  202           40 

70 

r 

..    92 

30 

20 

J 

.  222           85 

80 

r 

.  202 

70 

30 

K  

.  284           75 

90 

K* 

.  102 

30 

30 

L    

.  162           55 

60 

U 

.  102 

40 

80 

M 

.  186          75 

90 

M*  .... 

.  112 

40 

40 

N  

.  210          70 

70 

N* 

.  178 

70 

30 

0  

.  192          70 

80 

0* 

.  140 

60 

50 

P   

.  188          60 

80 

P 

.  214 

70 

30 

Q  

.  178          50 

40 

Q* 

.  200 

65 

60 

R   

.  216          70 

90 

S  

..  228          80 

90 

Mean    . 

.  154 

48.8 

362 

or 

44% 

Mean  . . 

.  212          67.4 

70.5 

or 

60.6% 

TABLE  XII 

Writ-  Vis-  Prac- 

Gr.  C  ten  ual  tical 

a 200  60%  80% 

b 182  50  45 

c    132  25  70 

d   62  5  SO 

e    98  25  60 

f    188  35  45 

g  120  50  35 

h  100  35  70 

i  146  55  80 

j   128  45  10 

k  68  20  30 

1   84  25  20 

Mean  ...  126  35.4  49.6 
or         36% 


140  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Table  XIII  shows  a  comparison  between  the  means  for  the 
different  groups  in  the  various  tests. 


TABLE  XIII 

Written  Test  Visual  Test  Practical  Test 

Group  A    60.6%  67.4%  70.5% 

Group  B    44.0%  48.8%  36.2% 

Group  C    36.0%  35.4%  49.6% 

Again  we  find  the  tendency  of  after-school  play,  whether  con- 
trolled (as  in  1920-1921),  or  uncontrolled  (as  in  1919-1920)  to 
cause  greatest  improvement  in  practical,  manipulatory  tasks;  but 
with  a  marked  improvement  in  other  lines  as  well.  Here,  too,  a 
comparison  between  Groups  B  and  C  shows  that  play  activities 
alone  are  almost  on  a  par  with  class  activities  alone  when  meas- 
ured by  the  same  tests — especially  when  allowance  is  made  for 
the  difference  in  age  between  groups  B  and  C.  The  most  happy 
combination  of  all  with  these  groups,  as  with  the  1920-1921 
groups,  is  a  type  of  work  that  combines  the  out-of-school  work 
with  class  work. 

In  Table  XIV  we  have  a  set  of  correlation  coefficients  that  sub- 
stantiate the  results  of  Table  IX. 


TABLE  XIV 

Written  and           Written  and  Visual  and 

Visual                Practical  Practical 

Group  A    7i                        24  .15 

Group  B    86                         233^  .479 

Group  C    77                        J38  22S 

In  Table  XIV  Pearson  coefficients  are  used 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CONCLUSIONS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 

Let  us  examine  the  data  of  the  previous  chapter  in  terms  of 
our  analysis  of  Chapter  V,  in  which  were  developed  a  set  of 
aims  for  judging  value.  In  the  results  of  the  visual  and  written 
tests  we  have  a  partial  answer  to  the  question  of  environmental 
knowledge.  In  these  tests  the  questions  and  phenomena  were 
so  organized  as  to  cover  the  whole  range  of  the  term's  work, 
rather  than  a  more  or  less  random  selection  of  the  term's  topics, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  the  recognized  type  of  teacher's  exam- 
ination. Thus  the  boys  had  an  opportunity  to  express  them- 
selves on  practically  everything  that  had  been  included  in  the 
curricular  work.  But  we  cannot  be  sure  if  the  material  repre- 
sented in  the  test  comprises  all  that  our  club  boys  had  met  with 
in  their  after-school  play.  Indeed,  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  Group  C  and  surely  Group  A  could  have  done  well  on 
many  other  questions  that  could  not  with  fairness  be  included, 
because  they  had  not  come  up  in  the  class  work. 

The  visual  test  is  so  designed  that  it  focuses  the  attention  of 
those  that  are  examined  on  the  five  queries  which  we  adopted  as 
definitions  of  environmental  knowledge. 

What  things  are? 

Why  things  happen? 

How  things  work? 

How  things  are  made? 

How  things  are  used? 

As  each  of  the  forty  phenomena  were  presented  to  all  four 
groups,  assembled  in  a  large  lecture  room,  there  were  some 
striking  contrasts  between  the  reactions  of  the  different  groups. 
Almost  the  first  question  that  popped  into  the  minds  of  the  Group 
D  boys,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  minds  of  the  Group  B  boys, 
was,  "What  is  it?"     The  question  was  evident  in  their  facial 

141 


142  After-School  Material  in  Science 

expressions  and  often  they  spontaneously  gave  it  vocal  expres- 
sion. The  club  boys  were,  in  general,  never  at  a  loss  for  a  reply 
as  to  what  things  were;  and  they  showed  it  not  only  in  their 
readiness  to  write  immediately  after  the  phenomena  were  pre- 
sented, but  also  in  their  test  results.  Having  replied  to  "What  is 
it?"  the  next  important  step  was  to  answer  "Why?"  or  How?" 
A  good  many  of  Groups  B  and  D  never  got  to  that  stage  in  their 
replies.  Let  us  take  an  illustration.  With  rapt  attention,  the 
100  boys  watch  the  examiner  going  through  the  motions  of  send- 
ing current  through  a  high  resistance  wire.  He  unrolls  a  piece 
of  the  wire  from  a  spool  and  stretches  it  horizontally  between 
two  clamps.  He  then  takes  two  wires  that  had  been  previously 
connected  to  a  source  of  current  (and  through  a  rheostat)  and 
brushes  one  wire-end  on  the  other  so  as  to  produce  a  large  elec- 
tric spark,  visible  to  all.  Then  he  ties  one  wire-end  to  one  clamp 
and  after  a  short  pause  and  glance  at  the  group  touches  the 
other  wire-end  to  the  other  clamp.  The  thin  resistance  wire  which 
was  barely  visible  before  becomes  a  glowing  streak  of  fire.  The  ex- 
aminer taps  the  bell  as  a  signal  for  them  to  write. 

Some  typical  replies : 
Group  D: 

(a)  "You  made  a  fire.*' 

(b)  "You  made  a  fire  with  electricity." 

(c)  "The  wire  got  hot." 

Group  C: 

(a)  "You  must  have  had  the  same  kind  of  wire  a  reducer  has; 
because  the  reducer  gets  hot  when  I  use  it." 

(b)  "Any  wire  will  get  warm  when  you  make  a  short  circuit." 

Group  B: 

(a)  "The  resistance  of  the  wire  was  too  great  and  it  got  hot." 

(b)  "The  wire  was  too  thin  to  stand  the  electricity.  The  heat 
de|>ends  on  two  things,  the  length  and  the  thinness." 

Group  A: 

(a)  "Any  thin,  long  wire  cannot  carry  a  lot  of  current  without 
getting  hot;  especially  if  the  material  of  the  wire  has  a 
high  resistance." 


Conclusions  and  Discussions  143 

(b)  'The  wire  must  have  been  nichrome  wire,  and  very  thin 
and  long.  The  longer  and  thinner,  the  greater  the  resist- 
ance. The  greater  the  resistance,  the  more  heat.  This  is 
how  an  electric  bulb  works." 

The  task  of  grading  the  answers  is  not  a  difficult  one  if  they 
are  graded  for  the  presence  or  absence  of  essential  ideas.  Thus, 
in  the  above  case  any  answer  that  made  mention  of  ''Resistance'* 
and  the  three  things  upon  which  "Resistance"  depends,  was 
scored  correct.  It  is  conceivable  that  finer  distinctions  in  answers 
can  be  made;  but  in  the  absence  of  a  standardized  scale,  these 
distinctions  would  not  be  safe. 

To  return  to  our  point,  the  visual  test  offers  a  means  of  dis- 
covering certain  types  of  information  and  appreciations  of  phe- 
nomena. To  some  extent,  too,  it  measures  ability  to  observe 
quickly  and  correctly,  though  only  the  very  poor  observers  will 
be  affected  in  this  respect.  But  primarily  it  demands  a  familiar- 
ity with,  and  a  recognition  of,  natural  phenomena  and  an  ability 
to  interpret  these  phenomena  either  in  terms  of  their  own  experi- 
ences or  in  generalizations  of  experiences  that  might  be  termed 
the  laws  of  science-  One  further  question  remains.  Are  the 
phenomena  dealt  with  by  the  test,  or  the  course  of  study  from 
which  they  were  derived,  or  the  play  activities  from  which  the 
course  was  derived,  such  as  actually  function  in  the  environment 
of  the  child?  A  perusal  of  the  materials  listed  in  Chapter  II 
permits  of  but  one  answer.  These  materials  and  activities  have 
the  hold  on  boys  that  they  have  because  they  have  their  origin 
in  the  environment.  The  models  and  mechanical  arrangements 
of  Meccano  and  Erector  are  taken  from  life.  Chemcraft  experi- 
ments, especially  the  more  popular  ones,  deal  with  soaps,  inks, 
paints,  oxygen,  carbon  dioxide,  cleaning  agents,  dyeing,  foods, 
etc.,  etc.  The  electric  outfits,  the  telephone,  the  telegraph,  wire- 
less, railroad  systems,  motors,  steam  engines,  and  the  thousands 
of  experiments  in  sound,  light,  heat  and  with  water,  air,  gas,  and 
minerals,  represent  most  important  phases  of  modem  life.  If 
play  activity  with  scientific  outfits  can  increase  our  understand- 
ing and  appreciation  of  these  elements  in  our  everyday  lives,  they 
justify  themselves  educationally.  And,  indeed,  our  results  show 
that  not  only  can  these  play  activities  enhance  the  value  of  cur- 


144  After-School  Material  in  Science 

ricular  science,  but  in  and  by  themselves  they  compare  favor- 
ably with  curricular  science. 

It  is  in  our  second  general  aim,  environmental  control,  that  the 
value  of  our  play  materials  becomes  marked.    In  the  type  of  abil- 
ity represented  by  the  "practical"  test,  Groups  A  and  C  are  far 
superior  to  the  rest.     In  a  sense,  environmental  control  is  more 
important  than  mere  knowledge  or  information,  for  it  involves 
the  functioning  of  this  knowledge  in  life  situations.     How  often 
do  we  remark  upon  the  vast  chasm  that  exists  between  being  able 
to  explain  to  the  physics  teacher  how  an  electric  bell  works  and 
the  ability  to  repair  the  house  door-bell !    The  utter  helplessness 
of  the  average  individual  who  is  confronted  with  a  balky  vacuum 
cleaner  or  an  electric  socket  that  won't  work  or  a  blown  fuse  or 
a  leaky  water  faucet  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  sad  phase  of  mod- 
ern city  life.     We  rely  too  much  uf>on  the  mechanical  expert 
who  weaves  around  himself  the  autocratic  halo  of  the  physician 
and  who  regards  poor  ordinary  mortals  as  incapable  of  under- 
standing what  ails  them  or  rather  their  house  appliances.     Just 
as  in  medicine,  so  in  things  mechanical  and  electrical  we  ought  to 
encourage  and  train  individuals  to  care  for  their  physical  belong- 
ings intelligently.    The  ounce  of  prevention  maxim  holds  just  as 
truly  in  this  field  as  in  medicine.     If  the  course  in  hygiene  aims 
to  make  the  doctor  a  less  necessary  commodity,  so  after-school 
activities  in  science  can  serve  to  make  less  necessary  the  plumber 
and  the  electrician.     The  most  interesting  result  of  the  practical 
test  is  the  small  amount  of  carry-over  or  transfer  which  there 
was  between  the  class-work  and  the  ability  to  do  the  actual  tasks 
with  materials.    It  is  clear  from  the  tables  of  the  previous  chap- 
ter that  the  curricular  work  did  not  help  Group  A  in  getting  their 
high  score  in  this  test,  for  Group  C,  without  the  curricular  work, 
did  better  than  the  much  older  boys  of  Group  B.     In  this  con- 
nection we  might  mention  again  the  common  criticism  of  mod- 
ern society  as  expressed  in  the  writings  of  Dr.  Eliot  and  others, 
in  which  the  loss  from  the  home  of  opportunity  for  sense-experi- 
ences is  very  much  regretted.     The  writer  wishes  to  point  out 
that  this  opportunity  still  exists,  but  in  a  different  form.     In  a 
sense,  there  are  more  of  these  experiences  possible ;  they  are  more 
interesting,   and  involve  a  greater  amount   of   intelligence  and 


Conclusions  and  Discussions  145 

knowledge.    The  stimulation  to  such  experiences  is  furnished  to 
a  great  extent  by  after-school  activities  in  science. 

Our  third  general  aim  dealt  with  ability  to  construct — the  abil- 
ity to  manipulate  and  to  fashion  out  of  raw  materials  usuable 
things.  That  this  ability  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of 
doing  well  in  the  practical  test  is  indicated  by  a  low  correlation 
coefficient  between  the  two.  An  explanation  perhaps  lies  in  the 
different  content  with  which  the  two  tests  deal.  Also,  it  must  be 
pointed  out  that  the  Stenquist  materials  are  more  generalized 
than  the  practical  test  materials  and  do  not  involve  specific  prepa- 
ration, either  curricular  or  extra-curricular.  According  to  Sten- 
quist, ability  in  his  test  is  very  highly  correlated  with  the  esti- 
mates of  shop-teachers  of  abilities  in  manual  work.  That  bears 
out  the  writer's  own  experience  with  Groups  A  and  B  in  the  shop. 
As  the  year  progressed  the  club  boys  became  the  most  efficient 
hi  the  use  of  tools  of  all  sorts;  and  in  adaptations  of  materials 
to  useful  ends.  The  shop  foremen  were  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
club  boys.  Groups  C  and  D,  who  took  shop  work  with  another 
teacher,  showed  the  same  influence  of  after-school  activity. 
Those  of  Group  C  were  usually  the  leaders  in  manual,  construct- 
ive work  of  all  kinds. 

A  value  of  after-school  activities  which  the  data  of  the  pre- 
vious chapter  do  not  uncover  is  the  extent  to  which  these  activi- 
ties make  for  experimentiveness  and  inventiveness  on  the  part  of 
the  boy.  It  is  in  the  development  of  this  trait  that  our  play 
materials  are  in  sharp  contrast  with  curricular  science.  By  some, 
the  only  value  sought  in  any  science  course  is  training  in  scien- 
tific method — a  training  which  will  make  the  average  individual 
a  less  gullible,  more  inquiring,  and  better-reasoning  citizen,  and 
a  training  which  will  discover  scientific  talent  that  might  devote 
itself  to  research.  To  that  end  all  of  our  laboratory  procedure 
has  been  organized.  It  is  generally  recognized  that  only  through 
contact  with  materials  and  first-hand  experiences  with  natural 
phenomena  can  scientific  methods  be  developed.  But  our  curric- 
ular attempts  to  achieve  this  end  have  strangely  been  very  bar- 
ren of  accomplishment,  chiefly  because  we  have  lost  sight  of  the 
nature  of  the  boy  of  the  "toy  age-"  No  better  criticism  of  this 
condition  has  ever  been  written,  in  the  judgment  of  the  writer, 
than  G.  Stanley  Hall's  chapter  on  "Adolescent  Feelings  Toward 


146  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Nature."  Hall's  views  are  significant  because  they  have  evolved 
from  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  urgings  that  furnish  the 
motive  power  of  all  that  the  adolescent  boy  does,  and  because 
one  of  the  strongest  manifestations  of  early  adolescence  is  experi- 
mentiveness. 

"Modern  pedagogy  of  Science,"  says  Hall,  "is  threatened  with  an  aliena- 
tion from  the  love  of  nature  .  .  .  Teachers  in  this  field  have  a  sense  that 
mathematics  is  the  only  proper  language  of  physical  science.  The  topics 
are  no  doubt  admirably  chosen,  their  sequence,  the  best  from,  a  logical 
standpoint,  and  they  are  such  models  of  condensation  and  enrichment 
that  it  seems  to  the  organizer  and  to  the  specialist  alike  almost  perversion 
that  the  youth  pass  it  by.  But  boys  of  this  age  want  more  dynamics.  Like 
Maxwell,  when  a  youth,  they  are  chiefly  interested  in  the  'go'  of  things  .  .  . 
The  high  school  boy  is  in  the  stage  of  beginning  to  be  a  utilitarian  ...  He 
would  know  how  the  trolley  works,  how  wired  and  wireless  telegraphy 
work  and  the  steam-engine,  the  applications  of  mechanics  in  the  intricate 
mechanisms,  almost  any  of  even  the  smaller  straps  bucklers  in  the  complex 
harnesses  science  has  put  upon  natural  force,  charm  him.  Physics  in  the 
street,  the  field,  the  shop,  the  factory,  the  great  triumphs  of  engineering 
skill,  civil,  mining,  mechanical  inventions  in  their  embryo  stage,  processes, 
aerial  navigation,  power  developed  from  waves,  vortexes,  molecules,  atoms, 
all  these  things  which  make  man's  reaction  to  nature  a  wonder  book, 
should  be  open  to  him  ...  for  it  is  the  heart  that  opens  up  the  way  for 
reason  .  .  .  Toy  museums,  exhibitions,  and  even  congresses  in  Europe 
are  very  instructive  here.  Bugs  that  flutter  and  creep,  birds  that  fly,  peck 
and  sing;  monkeys,  soldiers,  boats,  dolls,  balloons,  engines  that  move  are 
often,  especially  in  Germany,  masterpieces  of  mechanical  simplification  and 
cheapness,  illustrating  fundamental  principles.  Many  of  these  things 
could  be  made  as  manual  training  adjuncts,  and  the  best  boys'  books  like 
Cassell,  Baker,  Beard,  Routledge,  Peper,  and  also  books  on  magic,  like 
Hoffman  and  Hopkins,  would  be  helpful  in  teaching  problems  of  the  lever, 
balance,  wedge,  pulley,  pump,  monochord,  whistle,  prism,  small  lenses 
easily  ground  by  boys,  magic  lanterns,  kaleidoscopes,  telegraph,  etc.,  which 
the  normal  boy  will  approach  with  a  full-head  pressure  of  interest.  Glass 
work,  the  equipment  of  which  with  a  little  stock  of  tubes,  blow-pipes,  bel- 
lows, tools,  and  annealing  oven,  occupies  no  more  space  than  a  sewing 
machine,  including  the  making  of  thermometers,  all  this  gives  a  manual 
discipline  for  hand  and  eye  comparable  to  learning  the  piano.  Tops  of 
many  kinds  are  an  open  sesame  into  the  very  heart  of  science  and  sug- 
gest and  illustrate  some  of  the  profoundest  principles  from  ions  and  elec- 
trons to  stellar  systems  .  .  .  Where  work  that  the  boy  has  made  with 
his  own  hands  goes,  there  his  interest  follows.  An  inner  eye  opens,  skill 
with  fingers  is  harnessed  to  the  development  of  cerebral  neurones,  and  we 
work  in  the  depths  and  not  in  the  shadows  of  the  soul.  In  Europe  pho- 
tography is  often  curriculized  .  .  .  Suffering  as  school  physics  is  from 
lack  of  concreteness,  application  and  appeals  to  the  motor  element,  and 


Conclusions  and  Discussions  147 

still  more  maimed  as  manual  training  is  for  lack  of  intellectual  ingredients, 
the  present  divorce  of  the  two  is  a  strange  and  surely  transient  anomaly." 

As  Hall  points  out,  these  play  materials  supply  an  outlet  for 
the  inventive  genius  of  the  boy.  The  writer  has  gathered  rec- 
ords of  hundreds  of  toy  "inventions."  Some  of  them  were 
described  in  Chapter  IV;  but  a  few  instances  set  forth  in  detail 
will  serve  to  point  out  the  factors  making  for  originality. 

Boy  inventions  run  the  gamut  from  simple,  naive  improvisa- 
tions to  real  constructions  involving  new  applications  of  prin- 
ciples. On  the  boy  level  we  must  think  of  an  invention  as  a  new 
arrangement  of  parts  to  do  a  new  thing  or  an  original  use  of 
some  old  process  or  mechanism.  In  82  out  of  126  '"inventions" 
that  the  writer  has  recorded  the  invention  came  in  response  to  a 
known  need.  Necessity  is  indeed  the  mother  of  invention.  Thus, 
a  cousin  of  one  boy  was  blind.  The  unfortunate  fellow  would 
walk  along  tapping  a  stick  to  feel  his  way.  Once  or  twice  the 
point  of  the  stick  would  catch  in  a  crack  and  the  blind  boy  would 
fall.  The  invention  consisted  in  splitting  open  the  end  of  the 
walking  stick  and  inserting  a  small  Meccano  wheel  on  a  shaft  so 
that  the  blind  boy  could  roll  the  stick  along. 

Again,  the  water  pan  under  the  ice  box  overflowed  in  one  boy's 
house  so  that  a  good  deal  of  damage  was  done.  The  boy  thought 
that  some  scheme  to  announce  the  fact  that  the  pan  was  full 
would  solve  the  problem.  An  electric  bell  was  the  best  announcer 
he  could  think  of.  If  only  the  water  could  be  made  to  push  a 
button  Vv'hen  it  got  to  the  top !  Well,  why  couldn't  a  wooden  float 
make  a  contact?  And  there  he  had  it!  The  scheme  worked  to 
perfection. 

Or,  another  boy  in  adjusting  the  gears  of  a  Meccano  model 
was  forcibly  impressed  with  the  reductions  in  speed  obtainable 
by  various  combinations.  Also,  his  car  having  to  move  in  a  lim- 
ited floor  space,  it  was  necessary  to  know  exactly  what  gear 
arrangement  to  use.  This  led  him  to  try  out  various  combma- 
tions  until  he  found  that  a  certain  wheel  would  turn  around  once 
for  every  ten  feet  the  car  moved.  Then  the  idea  "struck"  him! 
A  distance  indicator!  And  it  was.  The  very  scheme  our  auto- 
mobile speed  indicators  use. 

The  writer  recently  had  the  pleasure  of  listening  to  Sperry, 
inventor  of  the  famous  gyroscope.     According  to  the  inventor, 


148  After-School  Material  in  Science 

tops  were  his  hobby.  He  and  his  boy  would  play  with  hundreds 
of  different  kinds.  He  does  not  know  just  how  and  when  the 
idea  came;  but  the  toy  began  to  take  on  practical  significances 
until  today  dozens  of  highly  valuable  uses  have  been  found  by 
his  top  by  both  his  boy  and  himself. 

Edison  as  a  boy  sat  on  eggs  to  see  if  he  could  hatch  them. 
Newton  as  a  boy  played  with  his  own  ingeniously  constructed 
toys  and  amused  himself  by  running  with  and  against  the  wind 
to  measure  its  velocity.  Galileo  was  fascinated  by  a  swinging 
pendulum  and  he  received  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  from  dropping 
stones  and  timing  their  fall.  Faraday,  Davy,  Maxwell,  Eli  Whit- 
ney, Watt,  Fulton,  Franklin,  Pasteur,  Stevenson,  Lake,  Holland, 
Maxim,  and  almost  every  other  inventor  of  prominence  has  the 
same  story  to  tell  of  his  youth  and  early  manhood.  In  a  study 
that  the  writer  made  some  years  ago*  of  the  lives  of  some  of 
our  great  scientists  and  inventors,  the  experimenting  instinct  dur- 
ing their  early  adolesence  was  found  to  have  had  many  outlets 
for  development.  Of  course,  our  boys  are  not  all  Newtons ;  but 
what  endowment  nature  has  given  them  needs  careful  nurture 
in  our  hands.  The  teacher  who  has  watched  a  boy  with  his  Mec- 
cano and  Chemcraft  will  be  less  likely  to  remark  that  only  a  few 
boys  ever  show  original  thought  or  inventiveness. 

As  has  been  noted  in  Chapter  IV,  few  boys  do  the  outfit  experi- 
ments as  they  are  told  to  by  the  manual.  They  start  with  the 
picture  of  the  derrick,  let  us  say,  and  when  one  third  of  it  is  up, 
an  idea  is  sure  to  come  which  will  start  them  on  a  series  of 
original  changes. 

♦The  Method  of  the  Scientists,  School  Science  and  Mathematics  for 
November,  1918. 

Sometimes  they  fail  and  have  to  go  back.  Sometimes  a  prob- 
lem that  the  situation  presents  will  urge  them  to  seek  information. 
Sometimes  they  get  discouraged.  But  in  the  majority  of  cases 
(and  here  lies  the  great  value  of  these  materials)  a  successful 
accomplishment  results  which  brings  on  new  problems  and  new 
tasks  more  enjoyable  than  those  which  preceded  it. 

In  conducting  a  year's  work  in  science  as  the  writer  did  during 
1920-21,  there  was  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  difference  in 
amount  and  quality  of  the  "original  activity"  which  the  work 
inspired.     We  might  again  tabulate  groups  A,  B,  C,  and  D  and 


Concltisions  and  Discissions  149 

record  the  amount  of  inventiveness  which  the  year's  work  pro- 
duced. Unfortunately,  no  test  is  available  that  measures  this 
trait:  But  some  records  kept  by  the  writer  might  be  of  value  in 
showing  certain  tendencies. 

Thus,  out  of  122  conferences  with  boys  who  came  after  school 
to  find  out  about  how  something  would  work,  or  for  help  of  some 
sort  97  were  with  boys  of  Groups  A  and  C,  only  25  were  with 
boys  of  Groups  B  and  D.  It  appeared  from  these  conferences 
that  the  after-school  work  in  school  was  stimulating  more  thought 
and  activity  than  the  class  work,  especially  activity  involving 
original  planning  and  execution.  As  the  year  progressed,  a  de- 
cided change  was  noted  in  the  kind  of  help  wanted  by  boys. 
Their  schemes  became  less  impractical.  They  began  to  show  a 
better  appreciation  of  the  possible  and  the  practical.  Perpetual 
motion  schemes  were  soon  regarded  with  contempt  by  the  majority 
of  the  boys.  A  tendency  for  getting  more  "information  on  a  sub- 
ject" became  noticeable.  Little  tricks  and  useless  stunts  became 
less  popular.  Larger  projects  were  attempted.  A  demand  for 
more  and  better  equipment  arose.  A  greater  number  of  reports 
came  in  of  boys  tinkering  with  the  mechanics  of  the  household.  A 
tendency  arose  on  the  part  of  parents  to  come  to  the  writer  for 
advice  as  to  what  to  do  with  these  newly  aroused  interests  and  a 
greater  number  of  home  play  shops  were  installed. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  the  boys  of  Groups  B  and  D  did 
nothing  along  these  lines,  for  they  too  possessed  many  of  these 
play  materials;  but  their  play  was  not  guided  and  in  most  cases 
was  very  much  restricted.  In  trying  to  discover  why  boys  of 
Groups  B  and  D  did  not  join  the  club  it  was  found  that 

18  had  to  practice  on  the  piano  or  violin  every  afternoon ; 

16  spent  most  of  their  free  time  in  playing  ball ; 

5  had  no  interest  in  toys  ; 

4  did  not  wish  to  join  after  the  club  had  once  been  organized; 

6  had  no  particular  reason  to  offer. 

Thus,  because  of  parent  restrictions  or  greater  interest  in 
physical  activities  boys  of  Groups  B  and  D  did  not  have  or  take 
the  opportunity  to  play  extensively  with  the  outfits  which  they 
possessed. 

To  return  to  our  discussion  of  inventiveness  and  experimenta- 
tion as   organized,  encouraged,   and   developed   by  after-school 


150  After-School  Material  in  Science 

activities  in  science,  let  us  compare  these  activities  with  the 
laboratory  methods  of  scientists.  It  should  first  be  noted  that 
scientific  reasoning  or  any  other  kind  of  reasoning  involves  an 
attitude  of  mind  that  is  typical  of  the  scientist  in  his  laboratory. 
Therefore,  any  value  that  we  see  in  a  course  in  science  for  de- 
veloping reasoning  ability  and  inventiveness  in  pupils  must  be 
dependent  upon  genuine  laboratory  procedure.  Analysis  of  the 
thinking  process  such  as  that  of  John  Dewey  have  focused  attention 
on  the  scientist  at  work  rather  than  the  work  of  the  scientist. 
Scientific  methods  viewed  from  this  standpoint  becomes  a  vital 
process  instead  of  a  cold  and  inert  body  of  logic.  Commencing 
in  a  perplexity  and  a  well-defined  need,  the  scientist  proposes  a 
solution — a  hypothesis — which  he  then  takes  to  the  laboratory. 
There  he  follows  each  implication  of  his  hypothesis  by  arranging 
conditions  which  will  eliminate  some  of  them,  throw  light  on 
others,  perhaps  cause  a  revision  of  the  hypothesis  in  the  light  of 
new  facts  and  finally  lead  to  adoption  or  rejection  of  the 
hypothesis. 

It  is  needless  to  dwell  on  differences  in  the  above  conception  of 
a  laboratory  and  present-day  curricular  laboratories,  but  it  is 
significant  to  point  out  that  the  free  activity  which  goes  on  with 
science  play  materials  has  many  points  in  common  with  this  con- 
ception. In  particular,  the  spirit  of  ''trying  things  out,"  the 
gaining  of  first-hand  experiences  and  the  arranging  of  conditions 
with  a  vital  purpose  in  mind  are  elements  that  parallel  the  genuine 
laboratory  situation. 

To  sum  up,  after-school  materials  in  science  have  value  in 
developing  ability  to  reason  soundly  by 

1.  Offering  a  wealth  of  sense-experiences  and  first-hand  con- 
tacts with  natural  phenomena  which  are  the  basis  of  all 
reasoning ; 

2.  Inducing  an  activity  which  is  whole-hearted  and  purposeful 
because  it  takes  advantage  of  a  very  strong  instinct  of  the 
boy  of  the  "toy  age,"  and  which  takes  place  according  to  a 
procedure  that  parallels  closely  the  scientist  at  work ; 

3.  Stimulating  and  habituating  experimentiveness  with  elements 
in  the  boy's  environment. 

Quite  as  great  a  value  as  there  is  in  these  after-school  materials 
of  providing  opportunity  for  embryo  Newtons  and  Edisons  is  of 


Conclusions  and  Discussions  151 

value  that  they  have  in  furnishing  real,  manipulative  experiences 
for  the  large  number  of  just  average  boys. 

Chapter  V  went  further  in  its  analysis  and  pointed  to  other 
broader  values  of  the  study  of  science.  Among  them  were  cul- 
tural or  avocational  values;  civic  and  vocational  values;  and  an 
attitude  or  spirit  of  work.  The  contribution  which  after-school 
activities  make  to  these  aims  is  considerable.  These  materials 
are  inextricably  bound  up  with  efficient  and  proper  use  of  leisure. 
Dr.  Eliot  has  pointed  out  how  the  conception  of  the  cultivated 
man  has  changed  in  the  last  century  from  an  emphasis  of  the 
literary  and  poetic  imagination  to  that  of  the  scientific.  Leisure 
time  is  essentially  extra-curricular  time,  though  training  for  leisure 
should  be  a  part  of  curricular  activity. 

The  arousing  of  an  attitude  of  work,  needs  perhaps  a  word  of 
explanation.  Already  we  have  discussed  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  thinking  process  the  attitude  of  experimentiveness ;  and 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  psychology  of  the  adolescent,  the 
enlisting  of  certain  instincts  for  whole-hearted  purposeful  activity. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  Thorndike's  psychology,  these  science 
play  materials  create  an  attitude  or  a  mental  set  which  facilitates 
the  learning  process.  From  the  point  of  Interest  and  Effort  as 
conceived  by  Dewey,  our  materials  again  hold  a  strategic  place 
in  the  life  of  the  boy.  It  is  significant  that  in  our  experiment  the 
play  activities  came  at  the  end  of  a  busy  school  day,  without 
suflfering  in  enthusiasm  or  in  quality.  The  play  was  an  active 
expression  and  not  a  "diversion."  Finally  there  is  the  distinctly 
adolescent  attitude  to  natural  phenomena.  To  quote  from  Hall, 
"Phenomena  are  a  veil  to  a  great  mystery,  like  a  curtain  to  be 
rung  up.  Youth  feels  itself  moving  about  in  a  world  unrealized." 
Perhaps  this  feeling  toward  nature  comes  a  little  after  the  period 
of  greatest  "toy  activity ;"  but  its  beginning  can  be  seen  at  1 1  and 
12.  This  attitude  is  undoubtedly  the  basis  for  not  only  science, 
but  art,  literature,  and  religion  as  well. 


Among  many  significances  that  these  conclusions  have  for  curricular 
science  problems,  two  have  been  given  application  by  the  writer.  One  is 
to  be  described  in  Chapter  XI  and  deals  with  a  series  of  exercises  and 
projects,  in  which  the  best  values  of  the  "toy"  have  been  combined  with" 


152  After-School  Material  in  Science 

the  use  of  tools  and  the  applications  of  science  principles.  The  organiza- 
tion is  adapted  to  curricular  work.  The  other  application  consists  of 
some  experiments  with  very  young  children  and  their  reactions  to  science 
play  materials  as  part  of  a  school  curriculum.  The  latter  experiment  is 
still  being  carried  on  by  the  writer  in  the  Play  School  of  the  Bureau  of 
Educational  Experiments  (New  York  City). 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  SCIENCE  CLUB  AND  THE  SCIENCE  PLAY  SHOP 

It  is  a  most  important  fact  that  the  period  in  a  boy's  life  which 
we  have  designated  as  the  "toy  age"  corresponds  very  closely  with 
the  so-called  "gang  age."  Even  before  Hall's  epoch-making 
book  on  Adolescence  the  gregarious  instinct  of  youth  has  been 
dwelt  upon  and  emphasized.  In  recent  years  the  tremendous 
growth  of  settlements,  social  houses  and  recreation  centers  has 
served  to  bring  the  "club"  to  the  attention  of  the  boy,  the  parent, 
the  teacher,  and  society  as  the  safety  valve  for  this  boy  tendency 
of  getting  together  for  a  common  purpose.  William  B.  Forbush 
in  his  book  The  Boy  Problem  reports  upon  862  boy  societies 
which  he  has  studied,  with  a  statement  that  "the  period  of  greatest 
activity  of  these  societies  is  between  10  and  15;  over  87%  being 
formed  during  that  period."  G.  Stanley  Hall  in  discussing  the 
"gang  instinct"  in  early  adolescence  says  that  "American  children 
tend  strongly  to  institutional  activities  only  about  30%  of  all  not 
having  belonged  to  such  organizations."  In  Chapter  3  we  saw 
how  the  manufacturers  of  science  toy  materials  vied  with  each 
other  in  tying  boys  to  their  own  particular  products,  by  means  of 
an  appeal  to  the  club  instinct.  Their  attempts  are  still  in  the 
early  stages  of  development ;  but  already  they  are  awaking  to  the 
need  for  a  better  understanding  of  boy  nature  and  a  more  effective 
utilization  of  the  motives  which  grip  the  lad  of  10  to  14.  A 
perusal  of  the  quotations  from  the  Meccano  Guild  handbooks 
(Chapter  3)  will  make  clear  that  Hornby  appreciates  the  wonder- 
ful opportunity  that  lies  ahead  of  Meccano  as  an  institutionalized 
activity  of  the  English  boy.  In  a  measure  he  has  already  suc- 
ceeded. So  much  so  that  here  in  America  a  very  serious  attempt 
is  about  to  be  undertaken  to  organize  a  similar  Meccano  Guild. 
A.  C.  Gilbert  and  H.  M.  Porter  regard  their  propaganda  activities 
as  their  most  important  asset.  A.  C.  Gilbert  states  that  the 
greatest  need  in  the  field  of  science  toys  at  the  present  time  is  to 
develop  a  central,  unified,  boy  movement  that  will   utilize  the 

153 


154  After-School  Material  in  Science 

tendency  of  boys  to  "join  a  club"  and  apply  it  to  science  activities. 
He  just  as  frankly  states  that  the  task  of  getting  the  various 
commercial  agencies  together  on  a  unified  program  is  nigh  im- 
possible. The  great  growth  of  the  Boy  Scout  movement  is  only 
another  instance  of  the  tremendous  power  that  lies  dormant  in 
this  social  instinct.  But  great  as  this  growth  has  been  we  hear 
on  all  sides  suggestions  bordering  on  criticism  for  a  revision  of 
the  content  program  of  scouting  which  will  include  a  large  and 
better  utilization  of  science.  Inevitably  the  scouting  program  will 
absorb  the  worthwhile  features  of  the  propaganda  of  the  manu- 
facturers, because  it  offers  the  only  way  of  ridding  this  movement 
of  commercialism. 

Not  only  the  toy  producers  but  editors  of  popular  science  maga- 
zines as  well  have  been  awakened  by  a  demand  for  help  and 
guidance,  coming  from  groups  of  boys  all  over  the  country  who 
seek  to  carry  on  joint  activities  in  science.  (In  the  case  of  the 
Popoular  Science  Monthly  the  writer  has  been  called  in  con- 
ference on  this  matter,  to  offer  suggestions  as  to  how  this  help 
which  the  boy  science  clubs  are  asking  can  best  be  supplied.  One 
possible  development  may  be  a  change  in  the  scope  and  aim  of 
the  present  Teachers  Service  Sheet  which  the  writer  edits  for 
the  magazine.) 

Widespread  boy  movements  are  not  new  in  America.  G.  Stan- 
ley Hall  lists  eleven  such  movements  of  more  or  less  significance 
in  his  chapter  on  Social  Instincts  and  Institutions.  Among  these 
we  find  the  "Captains  of  Ten,"  an  organization  promoting  a  belief 
in  Christ  through  manual  activities  such  as  whittling,  mat-weaving, 
etc.,  the  Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union,  the  Princely  Knights 
of  Character  Castle,  some  3,500  Bands  of  Mercy,  the  Coming  Men 
of  America,  the  Epworth  League,  and  others.  Our  present 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  is  another  instance  of  the  utilization  of  the  social 
instinct  during  adolescence;  and  at  the  present  time  we  have 
organizations  like  the  Winchester  Rifle  Clubs  of  America  and  the 
salesmen  clubs  of  the  Curtis  Publishing  Co.,  who  are  exploiting 
this  instinct  extensively  for  more  or  less  altruistic  purposes.  G. 
Stanley  Hall  lists  another  national  boy  society  that  has  peculiar 
significance  to  the  problem  of  this  study — ^the  Agassiz  Association, 
founded  in  1875  "to  encourage  personal  work  in  natural  science." 
Writing  in  1904,  Hall  states  the  membership  of  the  Association 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  155i 

to  be  25,000,  "with  chapters  distributed  all  over  the  country." 
According  to  some  authorities  of  the  day,  it  included  the  largest 
number  of  persons  ever  bound  together  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 
help  in  the  study  of  nature.  ''It  furnished  practical  courses  of 
study  in  the  sciences;  had  local  chapters  in  thousands  of  towns 
and  cities  in  this  and  other  countries ;  published  a  monthly  organ, 
The  Swiss  Cross,  to  facilitate  correspondence  and  the  exchange 
of  specimens,  had,  a  small  endowment,  a  badge,  was  incorporated, 
of  specimens  had  a  small  endowment,  a  badge  was  incorporated 
and  was  animated  by  a  spirit  akin  to  that  of  University  Exten- 
sion ;  and  although  not  exclusively  for  young  people  was  chiefly 
sustained  by  them."  Another  example  of  a  similar  movement  is 
our  present  day  Audubon  Societies. 

In  short,  the  question  of  the  club  in  its  relation  to  after-school 
activities  in  science  holds  forth  great  promise  as  an  instrument 
for  education.  Three,  factors  arise  from  some  of  the  sad  expe- 
riences in  this  field  of  endeavor,  which  should  act  as  a  guide  for 
all  further  attempts : 

(a)  Workable  Materials, 

(b)  A  definite  program, 

(c)  Intelligent  leadership. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  briefly  to  present  a  type  of  club 
which  the  writer  has  developed  in  the  attempt  to  meet  the  three 
factors  above  mentioned*.  The  Science  Club  is  the  most  effective 
vehicle  that  he  has  found  upon  which  extra-curricular  materials 
and  activities  can  be  carried ;  and  the  Science  Play  Shop,  whether 
in  the  school  or  in  the  home,  offers  the  best  physical  environment 
for  facilitating  the  activity. 

(a)     Types  of  Science  Clubs 

Almost  every  wide-awake  teacher  of  science  has  in  one  form  or 
another  attempted  to  enhance  the  interest  in  his  subject  by  organ- 
izing after-school  special  study  groups  of  some  sort.  Educational 
magazines  abound  in  descriptions  of  such  groups  and  their 
methods.  In  90  per  cent,  of  the  cases  that  the  writer  has  read 
or  known  about,  these  groups  or  clubs  tied  themselves  to  one 

*The  writer  has  had  considerable  experience  in  club  work.  He  was 
connected  with  a  Settlement  for  nearly  ten  years,  having  been  the  director 
of  boys'  club  work  for  three  years. 


156  After-School  Material  in  Science 

very  specialized  interest.  Sometimes  it  is  a  Radio  Club.  Some- 
times it  is  a  Field  Trip  Club,  or  a  Photography  Club  or  an 
Aero  Club,  or  an  Automobile  Club,  or  a  Chemistry  Club;  or  a 
club  for  the  study  of  some  other  special  subject.  The  experience 
of  these  specialized  clubs  is  almost  always  short-lived.  The  chief 
sources  of  difficulty  are  two.  First,  the  prime  movers  in  the 
group  lose  their  influence  on  the  majority;  because  they  advance 
so  rapidly  that  the  rest  feel  hopelessly  outclassed.  Second,  the 
progress  of  the  very  few  leaders  in  the  club  soon  exhaust  the 
knowledge,  ability  and  equipment  of  the  average  teacher  of 
science.  Where  the  latter  is  not  the  case  the  group  continues ;  but 
it  becomes  very  limited  and  select,  establishing  an  ''aristocracy 
of  scientists."  This  of  course  is  of  immense  value  to  the  "aris- 
tocrats," but  it  doesn't  at  all  utilize  the  possibilities  along  these 
lines  that  the  mass  of  individuals  possess. 

In  contrast  to  this  type  of  club,  we  have  the  ''General"  Science 
Club,  which  adopts  no  special  hobby  for  its  exclusive  program. 
Obviously  it  is  this  type  of  club  to  which  we  must  look  for  exten- 
sive educational  values;  and  in  the  organization  and  conduct  of 
which  we  can  find  suggestion  of  a  "boy  science  movement,"  or 
for  the  popularization  of  a  real  science  interest,  etc. 
{h)     The  Organization  of  the  Club 

The  club  each  year  adopts  a  constitution.  It  is  not  exactly 
within  the  sphere  of  this  paper  to  dwell  upon  the  technical  point 
of  constitution- framing,  but  a  good  deal  is  dependent  upon  the 
adoption  of  a  document  that  will  actually  function.  The  consti- 
tution must  be  brief,  simple  and  both  written  and  adopted  by  the 
boys.  At  the  first  meeting  of  the  club,  it  is  well  to  point  out  the 
need  for  a  set  of  rules,  and  then  with  the  aid  of  the  group  to 
organize  the  material  that  that  particular  group  wishes  to  put  into 
its  constitution,  thus: 

1.  What  shall  be  the  aim  and  purpose  of  the  Science  Club? 

2.  What  shall  be  its  name? 

3.  Membership : 

(a)  Who  can  become  a  member? 

(b)  What  must  a  boy  do  to  become  a  member  ? 

4.  Meetings : 

(a)  When  shall  they  be  held? 

(b)  Where? 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  157( 

(c)  How  often? 

(d)  Who  shall  call  for  special  meetings? 

5.  Money : 

(a)  Shall  we  pay  dues? 

(b)  How  much? 

(c)  Can  we  levy  taxes? 

(d)  How?    How  much? 

(e)  For  what  shall  the  money  be  used? 

6.  Expelling  members : 

(a)   For  what  reason  or  reasons? 

7.  The  Business  Program: 

(a)  How  long  shall  it  last? 

(b)  What  shall  be  the  procedure? 

8.  The  Science  Program : 

(a)  How  many  different  activities  shall  the  club  have? 

(b)  Who  shall  decide  upon  and  arrange  these  programs? 

9.  Officers : 

(a)  When  shall  elections  take  place? 

(b)  How  often? 

(c)  What  officers  shall  we  have? 

(d)  What  shall  be  the  duties  of  each  officer? 

(e)  How  can  an  officer  be  impeached? 

(f)  How  can  an  officer  resign ? 

(g)  Shall  officers  filling  positions   left  vacant  be  ap- 
pointed or  elected?    And  how? 

10.  Any  other  regulations  you  think  it  important  to  put  into 
the  constitution. 

The  outline  decided  upon,  a  committee  is  appointed  to  present 
answers  to  the  questions  raised  by  the  outline.  In  the  meantime 
a  set  of  temporary  officers  are  elected.  At  the  next  meeting  the 
constitution  is  discussed,  altered  and  finally  adopted  by  a  majority 
vote.  It  is  typewritten  and  pasted  into  the  secretary's  book. 
The  chief  value  of  the  constitution  is  to  create  an  "atmosphere." 
Often  this  procedure  is  the  first  of  its  kind  that  the  boy  has  ever 
experienced.  It  appeals  to  him  and  makes  for  solidarity  of  the 
group. 

The  officers  of  the  club  usually  consist  of  a  president,  a  vice- 
president,  a  secretary,  a  treasurer,  a  sergeant-at-arms,  a  librarian, 
and  two  scouts.    Their  duties  are  those  that  usually  devolve  upon 


158  After-School  Material  in  Science 

such  officials.  The  sergeant-at-arms  is  custodian  of  apparatus, 
arranges  seats,  collects  and  distributes  materials,  and  in  general 
maintains  order.  The  librarian  is  in  charge  of  all  books,  pamph- 
lets, magazine  articles  and  pictures  owned  by  or  contributed  to  the 
club.  He  organizes  a  system  by  which  members  can  draw  books, 
etc.,  from  the  library.  The  scouts  discover  and  investigate  inter- 
esting places  to  which  the  club  can  make  excursions.  The  club, 
however,  has  the  power  of  decision  as  to  whether  these  excursions 
shall  be  arranged.  The  president  and  the  director  arrange  the 
science  program  for  each  week  and  the  vice-president  acts  as 
assistant  to  lecturers  and  demonstrators  at  the  club  programs. 

Dues  are  usually  five  cents  a  week  and  occasionally  a  tax  of 
not  more  than  ten  cents  is  levied  in  order  to  purchase  a  special 
piece  of  apparatus  or  the  club  insignia  (buttons  or  arm-bands) 
or  to  pay  for  the  awards  and  prizes. 

A  business  meeting  of  no  more  than  fifteen  minutes  precedes 
the  main  program,  during  which  time  the  members  act  on  the 
reports  of  the  scouts,  the  librarian,  or  any  committee  which  may 
have  been  appointed,  and  passes  on  the  applications  for  member- 
ship of  new  applicants. 

Though  qualification  for  membership  varies  with  any  particular 
group,  it  is  usual  to  expect  every  member  to  prove  his  right  to 
join  by  showing  an  ability  to  earn  fifteen  points  of  merit.  (The 
Point  System  is  described  below.)  To  remain  a  member  in  good 
standing  it  behooves  a  boy  also  to  score  at  least  fifteen  points  each 
semester,  in  addition  to  his  initiation  points. 

Sometimes  when  the  club  grows  too  large  for  efficient  work,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Speyer  Science  Club,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
recognize  two  types  of  membership.  Grade  A  are  the  very  active 
boys  who  give  up  practically  all  of  their  extra-curricular  time  to 
science  club  activities.  Grade  B  are  the  boys  who  because  of  the 
demands  made  upon  them  by  athletics,  other  clubs,  and  home 
chores,  cannot  assume  an  equal  share  of  the  club's  activities  with 
boys  of  Grade  A.  They  come  to  the  meetings,  are  very  much  in- 
terested in  its  doings,  and  participate  to  the  extent  of  their  ability. 
Sufficient  admission  requirements  and  membership  standards  are 
imposed  to  avoid  a  "floating  membership."  In  the  Horace  Mann 
Science  Clubs  it  never  became  necessary  to  adopt  the  two-grade 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  159 

scheme,  so  that  the  data  of  Chapter  7  is  free  from  the  compHca- 
tion  which  this  would  introduce. 


GROWTH   AND   MORTALITY  OF   MEMBERSHIP   IN  THE  HORACE   MANN 

SCIENCE  CLUBS 

1918-19  1919-20  1920-21 

Number  of  members,  end  of  October  . .  16  34  45 

Number  of  members,  end  of  December  .  28  35  50 

Number  of  members,  end  of  February   .  30  38  49 

Number  of  members,  end  of  April 26  36  46 

Number  of  withdrawals  2  1  3 

Number  of  expulsions  3  7  3 

The  total  number  of  boys  to  whom  is  open  the  privilege  of 
membership  varies  from  85  to  95.  Roughly  then,  half  the  boys 
will  join  a  club  of  the  type  we  are  here  describing. 

Of  the  six  boys  in  three  years  who  resigned  from  the  club,  one 
withdrew  from  the  school,  two  lost  interest,  and  three  left  because 
other  extra-curricular  interests  were  making  too  great  a  demand 
on  their  time.  Of  the  thirteen  boys  who  were  expelled  during 
three  years,  nine  failed  to  meet  the  standards,  two  were  too  far  in 
arrears  in  the  matter  of  dues,  and  two  had  failed  to  behave  on 
some  occasion  as  gentlemen. 

The  success  of  the  club  is  of  course  more  dependent  upon  the 
director  than  upon  any  other  one  factor.  The  director  should 
take  no  active  part  during  meetings,  except  where  it  is  necessary 
to  carry  the  boys  over  what  is  to  them  an  insurmountable  diffi- 
culty. As  was  mentioned  before,  the  director  and  the  president 
confer  upon  and  arrange  each  week's  program.  In  all  matters 
he  should  act  as  adviser.  His  frame  of  mind  should  be  that  of 
a  man  behind  the  scenes,  who,  having  set  the  stage,  stands  by 
watching  the  performance,  ever  ready  to  step  into  a  situation  and 
set  things  right.  The  ability  to  do  this  properly  comes  with  prac- 
tice. It  does  not  demand  exceptional  ability  or  personality.  The 
writer  has  often  absented  himself  from  meetings,  arranging  for 
a  student-teacher  to  take  his  place.  In  some  cases  women  teachers 
took  charge  of  the  club,  but  in  no  case  did  any  disorder  result. 
The  most  necessary  characteristics  that  the  leader  should  possess 
is  a  familiarity  with  the  interests  of  the  boy,  a  well-organized 


160  After-School  Material  in  Science 

program  of  activity,  and  ability  to  handle  tools  and  to  improvise 
apparatus,  and  a  good  know^ledge  of  practical  science.  In  other 
words,  the  qualities  that  go  to  make  a  good  teacher  of  science 
are  also  essential  for  science  club  leadership.  In  some  ways  it 
is  even  easier  to  lead  a  club  than  to  teach.  The  club  leader  can 
with  greater  safety  confess  ignorance  on  some  subjects  and  work 
together  with  his  boys  in  the  solution  of  a  problem.  A  class-room 
situation  is  usually  not  adapted  to  such  a  procedure, 
(c)     The  Program  of  Activities 

Next  to  efficient  leadership,  the  successful  club  depends  upon 
its  program.  In  a  sense,  a  well-organized  program  can  make  up 
for  inexperience  or  poor  leadership.  There  are  in  all  five  types  of 
activities  that  merit  description. 

1.  Lectures. 
Boys  like  to  imitate.  They  like  to  regard  themselves  a  body  of 
great  scientists  who  are  assembled  to  listen  to  and  pass  on  great 
discoveries  and  inventions.  With  great  seriousness  they  will  intro- 
duce their  speakers  and  sit  back  to  listen  critically  to  what  is  being 
presented.  These  lectures  may  be  given  by  their  own  members, 
by  former  members  who  return  with  newer  and  richer  expe- 
rinces,  or  by  adults.  It  is  not  very  difficult  to  get  science  teachers, 
professors  of  science,  or  engineers  to  come  before  the  club.  They 
enjoy  talking  to  youngsters.  The  Horace  Mann  Science  Club 
has  entertained  some  very  distinguished  people  at  its  meetings. 
Representatives  from  the  New  York  Telephone  Co.,  from  the 
Sinclair  Valentine  Ink  Co.,  from  the  Slawson-Decker  Milk  Co., 
two  Columbia  professors  of  Physics  and  six  science  teachers  are 
some  of  the  speakers  who  have  come  before  the  boys,  often  with 
slides,  films,  and  apparatus.  Occasionally  the  director  presents 
a  talk  or  a  demonstration.  More  often  the  members  themselves 
give  these  lectures,  and  stand  the  fire  of  dozens  of  questions 
which  usually  wind  up  their  talks.  The  extent  to  which  this 
activity  is  popular  will  be  cited  later. 

2.    Trips. 

The  excursion  is  now  a  recognized  form  of  instruction.  As 
an  activity  of  the  club  it  presents  quite  a  different  problem.  Ex- 
cursions too  often  become  a  pleasant  means  of  killing  time.  As 
a  curricular  activity  it  is  subject  to  several  difficulties.    It  cannot 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  \6\ 

always  be  arranged  to  meet  a  classroom  need  at  a  crucial  time. 
The  teacher  is  handicapped  by  discipline  problems,  by  limited 
time,  by  lack  of  information  of  the  plant  or  factory  visited.  The 
engineer  or  person  in  charge  is  very  seldom  a  teacher  or  one  who 
can  patiently  answer  the  questions  that  boys  will  ask.  The 
teacher  must  be  ever  conscious  of  a  definite  teaching  unit  and 
provide  for  reactions  when  the  trip  is  over,  which  make  the  class 
too  conscious  of  the  fact  that  they  are  being  taught.  In  the  club, 
the  boys  must  decide  by  a  two-thirds  vote  whether  to  make  the  trip 
or  not,  and  the  dissenting  one-third  need  not  come.  The  result  is 
an  attitude  which  automatically  provides  for  reactions  that  make 
the  time  spent  educationally  valuable.  Those  who  have  come  to 
feel  that  excursions  are  always  interesting  and  productive  of  en- 
thusiasm, will  surely  revise  their  opinions  after  some  experience 
with  boys  who  are  permitted  to  arrange  their  own  excursions. 
The  writer  does  not  wish  to  go  on  record  as  being  opposed  to  this 
means  of  instruction.  The  contrary  is  true.  He  does  wish  to 
point  out  the  elements  which  make  the  trip  successful.  When  the 
scouts  interview  the  manager  of  a  plant,  they  assume  a  responsi- 
bility which  insures  good  order  and  respect  for  the  company's 
property.  Also,  they  seem  to  possess  a  strange  faculty  for  dis- 
covering men  who  can  talk  to  boys.  Then,  too,  the  club  leader 
plays  the  role  of  visitor  with  the  boys.  And  finally  the  original 
interest  which  motivated  the  trip  calls  forth  lasting  reactions 
that  not  only  supply  a  fund  of  information  but  inspire  thought. 
It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  a  good  many  boys  making  a 
second  and  a  third  trip  to  the  same  plant,  on  their  own  hook,  in 
order  to  learn  more  about  some  machine  or  process.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  one  of  the  secretary's  duties  is  to  write  up  the  excur- 
sion in  full  detail.  This  account  is  read  at  the  next  meeting.  No 
such  account  has  ever  gone  uncorrected  or  unsupplemented.  Often 
the  compositions  throughout  the  school  for  that  particular  month 
will  abound  in  descriptions  of  the  excursion. 

3.     School  Assemblies,  Exhibitions,  Bazaars,  Etc. 

The  social  life  of  any  school  is  highly  important.  It  produces 
that  much-desired  thing:  "School  spirit."  There  is  no  surer  way 
for  a  teacher  and  his  subject  to  become  popular  and  respected  than 
by  entering  into  the  social  activity  of  the  school.     One  of  the 


162  After-School  Material  in  Science 

Activities  of  the  Science  Club  is  to  arrange  periodically  for  events 
to  which  the  school  at  large  can  be  invited.  This  has  in  the  past 
taken  many  forms.  Sometimes  the  school  assembly  period  is 
devoted  to  an  exhibition  of  ''science  magic"  or  a  demonstration 
of  some  boy  inventions  or  the  presenting  of  a  playlet  that  has  a 
science  plot,  etc.  The  necessary  talent  is  never-failing,  for  the 
standards  are  not  high.  One  or  two  experiences  of  this  sort  may 
be  valuable  in  pointing  out  what  science  club  leaders  may  expect 
in  this  phase  of  activity. 

A  play  was  to  be  presented  at  a  Saturday  afternoon  gathering 
of  boys,  girls,  teachers,  and  parents.  The  plot,  written  by  a  boy, 
was  briefly  as  follows:  The  Science  Club  sergeant-at-arms 
catches  a  small  fellow  tampering  with  the  wireless  aerials  belong- 
ing to  the  club.  He  hauls  him  before  a  meeting  of  the  club,  where 
he  is  put  on  trial.  It  develops  that  the  culprit  had  been  urged  by 
mere  curiosity  and  a  deisre  to  understand  what  the  thing  was. 
After  some  very  wild  suggestions  by  members  as  to  punishments, 
one  boy  makes  a  plea  for  the  offender's  life,  proposing  that  he 
be  permitted  to  join  the  club  where  he  could  learn  all  about  it. 
His  eloquence  wins  the  club  over  and  they  then  proceed  to  initiate 
him  "scientifically"  into  the  club;  after  which  the  president  ties 
the  club  insignia  around  his  arm.  When  the  ''drama"  commenced 
some  of  the  leading  actors  became  stage-struck  to  the  extent  of 
forgetting  their  lines.  Fortunately  the  movement  of  the  plot, 
being  of  their  own  origin,  was  very  clear  in  their  minds.  First 
one  and  then  another  they  all  abandoned  their  memorized  lines 
and  rose  to  the  occasion  spontaneously.  In  parts  it  was  crude, 
but  months  of  rehearsing  could  not  have  produced  the  spirit  and 
genuineness  of  the  acting.    It  was  a  great  success. 

On  another  occasion  the  club  held  a  bazaar  to  raise  money  for 
the  Red  Cross.  Samples  of  the  club  work  were  exhibited  and 
people  were  urged  to  leave  orders  for  any  scientific  toy  that  struck 
their  fancy.  The  boys  were  carried  away  by  their  enthusiasm  and 
obtained  a  great  many  orders  for  which  they  collected  in  advance. 
At  the  meeting  that  followed,  they  were  confronted  with  the 
dilemma  of  either  refunding  some  of  the  money  or  working  for 
three  weeks  in  order  to  fill  the  orders.  The  lesson  in  responsibil- 
ity was  a  good  one.    They  met  their  obligations. 


The  Science  Cluh  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  163' 

In  many  other  ways  the  Science  Club  can  become  a  leader  in 
the  school's  activities.  The  school  newspaper,  the  school  library, 
and  certain  parts  of  the  school  plant  can  all  be  made  to  function 
in  the  club  program. 

4.     The  Work  Period. 

About  every  other  week  it  is  well  to  spend  part  or  all  of  the 
program  in  actual  working  with  tools  and  apparatus.  This  at 
once  makes  essential  that  there  be  not  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen 
boys  at  a  time.  In  Chapter  6  we  describe  in  detail  how  these  work 
periods  (play  periods)  were  conducted.  During  1920-1921  these 
periods  were  a  major  portion  of  the  club  activity  because  they 
were  demanded  by  the  conditions  of  our  experiment.  In  order 
that  the  forty-five  club  members  have  an  opportunity  to  work 
(play)  at  least  once  a  week,  it  was  necessary  to  arrange  for  three 
afternoons  during  the  week,  with  another  period  for  a  general 
meeting  for  all,  spent  in  a  demonstration  or  lecture  program  to 
be  described  in  the  next  paragraph.  Ordinarily  the  work  period 
can  come  once  a  week,  the  boys  taking  their  turn  in  this  activity. 
The  purpose  of  this  period  is  to  give  them  an  opportunity  to  try 
out  their  ideas  and  to  experiment  with  their  toys.  During  the 
demonstration  programs  there  are  many  things  presented  that 
stimulate  them  to  *'try  out"  and  to  "invent."  The  periods  are 
designed  to  give  outlet  for  these  stimuli.  Although,  during  the 
last  two  years  the  writer  refrained  from  entering  into  this  activity 
in  any  large  way  (in  order  to  meet  a  condition  of  experiment), 
these  work  periods  present  a  golden  opportunity  to  direct  a  boy's 
thoughts  into  the  proper  channels.  "Wild-cat"  schemes  can  be 
quickly  discouraged;  information  can  be  supplied;  proper  books 
put  in  his  way,  and  in  many  other  ways  the  boy  can  be  helped 
to  develop  in  scientific  concepts  and  methods. 

5.    The  Demonstration  Program. 

This  is  the  most  popular  activity  of  the  club  next  to  the  work 
period.  The  demonstrations  center  around  a  system  of  awards 
known  as  the  Point  System  which  is  printed  here  in  full.  Each 
boy  receives  a  copy. 


164  After-School  Material  in  Science 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  PRIZE  OFFERED  BY  THE 
HORACE  MANN  SCIENCE  CLUB 

Points 
(250  points  which  will  be  awarded  according  to  the  following  list.) 

1.  For  constructing  a  piece  of   apparatus  or  toy 10 

2.  For  demonstrating  a  piece  of  apparatus  or  toy 10 

3.  For  performing  an  experiment   10 

4.  For  demonstrating  a  new  Meccano  or  Erector  construction 10 

5.  For  demonstrating  and  explaining  a  Chemcraft  experiment 10 

6.  For  discovering,  demonstrating  and  explaining  a  new  Chemcraft 
experiment    IS 

7.  For  demonstrating  and  explaining  a  construction  or  experiment 
with  an  Electrical  Set  10 

8.  For  demonstrating  and  explaining  a  new  Electrical  Set  construc- 
tion or  experiment  15 

9.  For  making  a  great  discovery  or  invention   (so  recognized  by 

the  club)    25  to  50 

10.  For  proposing  an  original  idea  in  science 1 

11.  For  working  out  that  idea,  or  anyone  else's  idea  in  practice. .  .5  to  50 

12.  For  duplicating  any  of  the  experiments,  devices,  or  phenomena 
described  in  any  of  the  Popular  Science  Magazines  10 

13.  For  rendering  a  report  or  lecture  to  the  club  on  some  impor- 
tant article  in  any  of  the  magazines  or  newspapers 5 

14.  For  keeping  a  well-organized  Science  Scrap  Book.     (For  every 

50  important  magazine  or  newspaper  articles.)   10 

15.  For  a  collection  of  magazine  diagrams  and  pictures  on  some 
important  idea  or  topic  in  science  5 

16.  For  entering  any  of  the  Popular  Science  Magazine  competitions  5 

17.  For  winning  a  prize   25 

18.  For  being  able  to  calculate  the  gas,  water  and  electricity  bills. .  5 

19.  For  being  able  to  regulate  a  clock  2 

20.  For  being  able  to  do  simple  wiring  of  bells  and  batteries  5 

21.  For  being  able  to  wire  up  a  desk  lamp  3 

22.  For  being  able  to  regulate  and  take  care  of  a  player  piano  or 
victrola    2 

23.  For  being  able  to  replace  a  burnt-out  electric  socket  5 

24.  For  being  able  to  run  a  small  electric  motor  5 

25.  For  being  able  to  run  a  lantern  slide  machine  5 

26.  For  being  able  to  repair  a  bicycle,  skates,  window  pulleys,  win- 
dow shades,  etc 5 

27.  For  being  able  to  take  good  pictures   5 

28.  For  being  able  to  print  and  develop   pictures    10 

29.  For  being  able  to  take  apart  and  put  together  again  a  phono- 
graph, vacuum  cleaner,  or  sewing  machine  10 

30.  For  being  able  to  measure  a  person's  blood  pressure  5 

31.  For  being  able  to  measure  humidity    5 

32.  For  delivering  a  lecture  before  the  club  5 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  165^ 

ZZ.  For  taking  a  trip  to  some  industrial  plant  and  reporting  to  the 

club    5 

34.  For  reading  a  book  on  science  and  reporting  to  the  club 15 

35.  Ror  reading  a  science  story  and  telling  it  to  the  club  5 

Z6.  For  being  able  to  explain  10  of  the  things,  mechanisms  or  proc- 
esses listed  on  the  club  list  10 

Z7.  For  being  able  to  explain  10  of  the  phenomena  listed  on  the  club 
list    10 

38.  For  knowing  the  names  of  20  great  scientists  5 

39.  For  knowing  what  great  thing  or  things  each  is  remembered  for      5 

40.  For  being  able  to  give  some  important  facts  about  the  lives  of 

10  of  them  5 

41.  For  being  an  officer,  scout,  or  librarian  of  the  club 5 

42.  For  helping  in  the  Science  Shop  5 

43.  For  helping  some  boy  in  working  out  his  project 5 

44.  For  excellence  in  Shop  5 

45.  For  excellence  in  class  work  5 

When  a  boy  wishes  to  claim  points  he  fills  out  a  slip  of  paper 
which  he  drops  into  the  Program  Box.  The  day  before  the  meet- 
ing, the  president  takes  out  all  these  applications  for  numbers  on 
the  program  and  brings  them  to  the  director.  Together  they  look 
them  over,  arranging  them  in  the  best  order  and  making  a  list 
of  equipment  which  will  be  necessary.  It  is  understood  that  all 
special  apparatus  will  be  supplied  by  the  demonstrators  them- 
selves, who  are  also  expected  to  prepare  and  set  up  the  apparatus 
they  will  need.  The  program  consists  of  calling  the  boys  up  in 
the  order  arranged.  Each  number  is  followed  by  questions  and 
discussion.  One  of  the  most  interesting  reactions  that  this  activ- 
ity produces  is  in  connection  with  the  presenting  of  so-called  in- 
ventions. The  inventor,  after  explaining  and  demonstrating  his 
device  must  then  meet  a  flood  of  questions.  The  originality  of  the 
work  is  sometimes  contested ;  the  feasibility  of  the  scheme  and  its 
practical  value  criticised.  He  is  required  to  test  the  device  thor- 
oughly and  often  to  carry  on  these  tests  over  a  long  period  of 
time  before  he  is  granted  the  points.  One  of  nearly  one  hundred 
"inventions"  of  this  kind  was  a  wiring  scheme  by  means  of  which 
a  person  instead  of  knocking  on  a  door  could  turn  the  knob  and 
thus  close  a  contact  which  would  ring  a  bell.  Certain  features 
of  the  device  were  doubted  by  the  members,  who  made  the  inven- 
tor install  the  device  in  his  home  to  see  how  long  it  would  stand 
usage.    A  committee  was  appointed  to  report  on  its  practicability. 


166  After-School  Material  in  Science 

The  club  minutes  are  crowded  with  such  instances.  There  is 
greater  difficulty  in  preventing  the  standards  from  becoming  so 
rigid  that  they  discourage  activity,  than  there  is  of  allowing  work 
of  poor  quality  to  pass.  It  has  been  the  writer's  experience  that 
boys  can  be  more  severe  with  each  other  than  can  a  teacher 
with  a  boy.  One  of  the  things  the  director  must  be  ever-watchful 
for  is  the  doing  of  an  injustice  to  some  boy  by  his  fellows.  In 
this  connection  it  is  well  for  the  director  to  keep  for  himself  the 
authority  of  granting  or  not  granting  the  points;  ahhough  it 
should  be  a  common  practice  to  call  for  a  vote  where  there  is 
assurance  that  a  judgment  thus  arrived  at  will  be  fair. 

The  pressure  of  the  group  can  be  utilized  by  the  director  in 
various  ways.  In  the  case  of  the  boy  described  in  Chapter  4 
who  is  interested  only  in  the  "fire-works"  of  his  Chemcraft  Out- 
fit, the  club  can  very  easily  bring  about  one  or  two  results  by 
insisting  each  time  he  claims  points  for  a  new  experiment  on  a 
thorough  explanation  of  what  happens.  Either  he  becomes  en- 
tirely discouraged  and  ceases  his  Chemcraft  activity  or  he  is 
stimulated  to  master  the  ''whys''  and  ''wherefores"  of  what  he 
is  doing.  The  minutes  of  the  different  clubs  show  that  in  67  cases 
of  this  kind,  42  of  the  boys  appeared  at  a  later  meeting  and  pre- 
sented an  explanation  of  the  experiment  that  satisfied  both  the 
director  and  the  boys.  In  the  case  of  32  "inventions"  that  were 
given  tests  of  practicability,  21  were  eventually  perfected.  Of 
212  cases  where  boys  were  "stumped"  by  questions  involving 
knowledge  which  they  did  not  possess,  40  tried  to  "bluff  it  out," 
128  asked  the  director  for  help  or  resorted  to  books,  and  the  rest 
were  never  again  heard  from  on  those  particular  questions.  It 
is  not  new  to  those  who  have  had  intimate  experience  with  boys 
to  say  that  the  boys  value  more  the  respect  and  affection  of  their 
fellows  than  the  reward  in  "points."  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that, 
although  a  competitive  system  was  set  up,  the  competition  was 
of  the  individual  with  himself ;  for  each  boy  who  scored  250  points 
for  the  year  received  the  same  prize.  On  the  average,  eight  or 
ten  boys  reached  their  goal  each  year. 

In  the  following  table  we  can  get  an  idea  of  the  relative  popu- 
larity of  the  different  items  of  the  point  scheme.  Next  to  each 
item  numbered  is  given  the  total  number  of  points  scored  by 
means  of  it  during  three  years. 


8' 


a.  Gas  Outlets 

b.  Work  Benches 

c.  Chairs 

d.  Drill 

e.  Electric  Plug  Outlets 
g.     Grindstone 

1.      Student  L  ockers 

r.     Rheostat 

s.     Seats 

V.     Metal  Vice 

B.  Blackboard 

C.  Cabinets 

D.  Desk 
F.    Sink 

L.    Lecture  Table 
O.  Book  Case 
R.  Railroad  Outfit 
S.    Storeroom 
T.  Tables 


Floor  ^lan  Science  Play  Shop 


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ZZ 


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Y 


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T V 


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SCALE  1-8  in. 


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ift. 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  167 

Item                Points  Item  Points 

1 1260       23 84 

2 2210       24 246 

3 1070       25 186 

4 1810       26 325 

5 750       27 110 

6 615       28..' 30 

7 920       29 20 

8 255       30 10 

9 2820       31 65 

10 234       32 250 

11 610       33 1705 

12 190       34 225 

13 205      35 25 

14 90       ^ .*  .... 

15 60       Z7 256 

16 25       38 105 

17 50      39 90 

18 245       40 65 

19 326       41 145 

20 750      42 205 

21 120       43 .' 65 


22 302       44.. 

{d)     The  Science  Play  Shop 

Another  essential  to  the  success  of  a  science  club  is  a  room 
where  these  after-school  activities  can  be  carried  on  efficiently. 
The  Horace  Mann  Science  Club  of  1920-1921  has  been  the  most 
successful  in  the  experience  of  the  writer  for  one  reason  more 
than  any  other;  and  that  was  the  building  of  a  Science  Play 
Shop.  An  old  junk  room  was  cleaned  out  for  the  purpose,  and 
at  very  little  expense  fitted  up  to  meet  the  needs  of  science  work. 
Some  of  the  experiences  with  this  room  might  be  of  value  to 
someone  else;  and  to  this  end  a  floor-plan  and  description  are 
here  submitted.     (See  illustration  and  diagram.) 

The  arrangement  of  the  pupils  around  the  sides  of  the  room 
permits  the  director  of  the  club  to  command  a  good  view  of  the 
whole  group.  It  also  economizes  space,  leaving  the  center  of  the 
room  for  large  apparatus  demonstrations.  In  this  way  the  direc- 
tor or  any  boy  can  walk  to  the  center,  hold  something  up,  and  it 
will  be  seen  without  the  craning  of  necks.  Going  from  work- 
benches to  seats  is  also  a  much  simpler  matter  than  with  the 
benches  arranged  in  rows.    An  essential  part  of  the  room's  equips 


168  After-School  Material  in  Science 

ment  are  the  two  library  tables  with  the  books  and  magazines. 
Boys  are  encouraged  to  go  from  apparatus  to  book,  from  book 
to  apparatus,  and  back  again.  The  work  benches  are  of  the 
simple  type  that  can  be  bought  for  $60  at  Hammacher-Schlemmer 
&  Co.  Usually  a  set  of  these  benches  are  part  of  the  equipment 
of  every  school  shop.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  individual 
benches.  A  long  table  running  around  the  three  sides  of  the  room 
will  quite  suffice.  A  few  vises  can  be  provided  either  as  part  of 
this  table  or  attached  to  a  separate  bench.  At  about  six  or  eight 
places  around  the  room  plug-switches  should  be  supplied.  This 
meets  most  of  the  demands  for  electricity  that  are  made.  There 
should  be  a  main  switch  that  controls  all  the  current  in  the  room 
which  though  visible  to  all  should  be  manipulated  by  the  director 
or  a  chosen  few.  To  minimize  short-circuits,  it  is  well  to  put  a 
variable  rheostat  in  series  with  the  main-supply,  so  that  the  boy 
cannot  get  more  than  a  given  number  of  amperes  no  matter  what 
sort  of  connection  he  makes.  Where  alternating  current  is  avail- 
able instead  of  direct  current  a  low-voltage  transformer  can  be 
used  with  safety.  At  each  place,  too,  there  should  be  a  gas  outlet 
to  which  a  bunsen  burner  can  be  attached.  The  equipment  at 
each  bench  should  consist  of  the  following:  Back  Saw,  Try 
Square,  Ruler,  Plane,  Hammer,  Brush,  Bunsen  Burner,  Screw 
Driver,  Pliers,  Knife.  Other  general  equipment  not  kept  at  the 
individual  benches  might  be  a  set  of  chisels,  some  large  rip  and 
cross-cut  saws,  a  set  of  mallets,  a  set  of  files,  a  set  of  braces  and 
bits  and  some  bench  hooks.  A  grindstone,  a  hand-drill  and  a 
metal  vice  should  be  kept  on  small  movable  tables  so  that  a  boy 
can  move  them  to  convenient  parts  of  the  room.  There  should  be 
a  movable  black  board  that  can  rotate  so  as  to  present  either  side 
to  view.  A  small  closet  for  chemicals  should  be  placed  close  to 
the  sink.  By  using  small  chairs  or  stools  fastened  in  rows  of 
tens  and  mounted  in  three  gradually  rising  tiers,  thirty  boys  can 
be  accommodated  in  a  surprisingly  small  space  and  so  seated  that 
everything  that  is  being  done  at  the  demonstration  table  in  front 
of  the  black  board  is  perfectly  visible.  Gas  is  obtained  for  the 
demonstration  table  by  means  of  a  long  piece  of  rubber  tubing 
attached  to  one  of  the  wall  outlets.  Electricity  is  of  course 
brought  to  the  table  by  means  of  wires  from  one  of  the  wall 
plugs.     The  controlling  rheostat  is  close  to  the  demonstration 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  169J 

table.  Other  features  such  as  a  wireless  and  a  telegraph  from  one 
end  of  the  room  to  the  other,  and  a  railroad  system,  are  all  very 
easily  installed  as  shown  in  the  diagram  and  very  accessible  to 
everybody  in  the  room.  Exclusive  of  cabinets  and  plumbing,  the 
science  play  shop  here  described  can  be  installed  for  slightly  over 
$250. 

(e)     The  Science  Play  Shop  in  the  Home 

Closely  related  to  the  question  of  providing  adequate  facilities 
for  the  club  in  the  school  is  the  question  of  what  should  be  done 
with  these  activities  in  the  average  apartment  house.  The  task 
at  the  outset  looks  hopeless.  There  is  no  space  to  spare.  Fur- 
nishings can  be  too  easily  damaged.  The  rest  and  quiet  of  other 
members  of  the  family  and  of  neighbors  is  too  easily  disturbed. 
And  there  are  any  number  of  legal  restrictions  that  interfere 
with  the  ideal  laboratory  situation.  But  the  need  is  great.  In  this 
form  of  play  we  cannot  fall  back  upon  the  play  ground  which  is 
the  modern  institution  that  has  usurped  many  of  the  functions  of 
home  and  farm.  Neither  can  we  rely  on  the  school  or  the  school 
shop  until  the  latter  are  organized  to  provide  for  this  type  of  activ- 
ity. What  is  the  result?  The  boys  do  the  best  they  can  under 
the  circumstances.  The  experimenting  and  manipulatory  instincts 
of  early  adolescence  are  far  too  strong  to  be  inhibited  by  even  the 
close  confines  of  the  apartment  house,  whether  the  latter  be  on  the 
East  Side  or  on  Riverside  Drive.  Boys  will  invade  the  kitchen, 
the  bathroom,  the  engine  room  in  the  cellar,  the  elevator  shaft,  the 
tank  on  the  roof,  tamper  with  the  telephone,  the  light  switches, 
blow  fuses  and  replace  them,  and  examine  critically  the  gas  and 
electricity  meters.  The  gas  range,  the  vacuum  cleaner,  the  electric 
fan,  the  electric  percolator  and  toaster  are  all  objects  that  excite 
his  curiosity,  his  interest  and  his  manipulatory  instinct.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  writer  has  found  Horace  Mann  parents  to  be 
awake  to  the  educative  possibilities  of  these  tendencies  on  the  part 
of  their  youngsters.  Only  occasionally  does  one  come  across  the 
parent  who  discourages  the  boy  from  these  activities,  developing 
in  them  the  "Call  the  mechanic"  habit  for  each  small  mechanical 
emergency  of  life.  The  above  being  the  case  any  suggestions  that 
might  help  in  a  difficult  situation  may  be  of  value.  To  that  end 
the  following  experiences  with  the  home-play  problem  are  cited: 


170  After-School  Material  in  Science 

1.  The  most  efficient  method  of  storing  science  play  materials 
is  a  large  and  flat  case,  box,  or  trunk  that  can  be  slid  under  a  bed 
or  sofa,  or  placed  on  a  shelf.  It  seems  a  perfectly  feasible  thing 
to  develop  a  special  cabinet  for  this  purpose,  which  when  opened 
up  will  present  a  top  on  which  to  work,  some  shelves,  test  tube 
rack,  ring  stand,  and  even  vice.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Chemcraft 
Set  No.  4  and  a  good  many  of  the  containers  of  the  Gilbert  mate- 
rials are  already  utilizing  a  fold  device  which  is  but  a  flat  box 
when  closed  and  a  type  of  laboratory  bench  when  opened.  The 
ingenuity  that  has  been  applied  to  the  building  of  compact  travel- 
ing trunks  that  contain  literally  hundreds  of  articles  and  clever 
fixtures,  might  also  be  pressed  into  service  for  the  boy.  There  are 
signs  that  this  development  is  coming.  Some  of  the  recent  com- 
petitions of  the  toy  manufacturers  and  editors  of  science  maga- 
zines have  given  prizes  for  the  most  efficient  and  most  ingenious 
boy-home-laboratories.  A  study  of  some  of  the  winning  photo- 
graphs leaves  one  with  the  thought  that  the  boy  himself  will  play 
a  great  part  in  bringing  about  this  development. 

2.  The  boy  is  not  particular  as  to  where  his  "laboratory"  is 
put  as  long  as  he  has  accessible  the  three  essentials  to  his  work : 
water,  gas  and  electricity.  The  traditional  nursery  in  the  attic  is 
a  failure  if  it  hasn't  these  three  essentials.  That  there  are  ele- 
ments of  danger  in  the  use  of  gas  and  electricity  cannot  be  denied 
but  that  they  present  any  more  danger  than  does  the  crossing  of  a 
busy  New  York  street  is  also  denied.  In  both  cases,  careful  in- 
structions are  necessary,  and  complete  trust  given  when  proper 
habits  are  made.  A  small  asbestos  mat  will  minimize  greatly  the 
danger  from  fire. 

3.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  writer  has  supervised  the  instal- 
lation in  the  homes  of  boys  of  a  wiring  circuit,  which  tapped  the 
main  supply  and  brought  current  to  the  boy  through  a  set  of  two 
ampere  fuses.  This  makes  impossible  the  "blowing"  of  the  house 
fuses.  The  boy  can  "blow"  his  two  ampere  fuses  and  replace 
them  at  will.  Regular  house  current  is  recommended  as  an  econ- 
omy (batteries  are  expensive  and  easily  worn  out)  and  as  a  means 
of  greater  experimental  possibilities.  Where  there  is  alternating 
current  a  low  voltage  transformer  is  an  ideal  piece  of  equipment, 
and  in  all  cases  a  "reducer"  or  rheostat  is  valuable. 


The  Science  Club  and  the  Science  Play  Shop  171 

4.  The  tools  a  boy  will  need  are  surprisingly  few  in  number. 
A  saw,  a  plane,  a  hammer,  a  knife,  a  screw-driver,  a  pair  of  pliers, 
a  brace  and  bit,  a  ruler,  a  try-square,  a  chisel  and  a  file,  are  almost 
all  he  will  ever  wish  to  use.  A  metal  vice  is  of  great  value.  In 
this  connection  the  Gilbert  Carpentry  Outfit  offers  a  rather  inex- 
pensive set  of  essential  tools. 

5.  Out  of  50  Speyer  boys  and  191  Horace  Mann  boys  whom 
the  writer  has  spoken  to  on  the  question  of  a  special  place  at  home 
where  they  could  play  with  their  toys,  45  of  them  had  special 
rooms  fitted  up  for  that  purpose,  72  were  permitted  to  fit  their  bed- 
rooms up  as  laboratories,  32  had  corners  in  the  kitchen,  22  had 
corners  in  the  bathroom  and  70  had  no  place  at  all  for  this  work 
(play). 


CHAPTER  X 

SUMMARY  OF  IMPORTANT   FEATURES  AND   FIND- 
INGS OF  THE  DISSERTATION. 

1.  An  intimate  description  of  a  set  of  after-school  materials  and 
activities  in  science ;  involving  a  discussion  of  historical  devel- 
opment and  of  the  aims,  methods  and  advertising  propaganda 
adopted  by  the  manufacturers  of  these  materials. 

2.  A  critical  examination  of  the  various  ''manuals  of  instruction" 
that  go  with  the  outfits  or  sets ;  emphasizing  methods  of  pres- 
entation, logical  vs.  psychological  organization,  and  the  most 
popular  experiments  and  manuals. 

3.  The  kind  of  science  toys  most  frequently  possessed  by  boys. 
(See  list,  Chapter  4.) 

4.  The  average  number  of  toys  per  boy  in  the  Horace  Mann 
School  is  3.9  outfits  and  13.3  specific  toys.  The  average  num- 
ber per  boy  in  the  Speyer  School  is  3.2  outfits  and  11.7  specific 
toys. 

5.  The  poorer  parent  buys  his  boy  almost  as  many  toys  as  the 
richer  parent  buys  his ;  but  the  toys  are  not  as  expensive. 

6.  In  general  the  very  expensive  toys  are  not  more  educational 
or  more  fun-producing  than  are  the  less  expensive  ones. 

7.  The  number  of  toys  a  boy  possesses  increases  until  he  is  11 
or  12  years  of  age.  The  number  stays  constant  until  he  is 
14;  when  it  begins  rapidly  to  decrease. 

8.  The  kind  of  toys  that  are  most  popular.   ( See  list,  Chapter  4. ) 

9.  At  14  years  of  age  there  is  a  marked  change  in  the  type  of 
interest  that  a  boy  has  in  toys.  Though  after-school  science 
activities  do  not  diminish  appreciably,  there  are  no  toys  sold 
which  meet  his  needs  completely. 

10.  The  toy  outfit  is  far  more  popular  than  the  specific  toy.  (An 
outfit  is  distinguished  from  a  specific  toy  chiefly  by  a  greater 
wealth  of  experimental  possibilities  and  original  adaptations.) 

172 


Summary  of  Important  Features  and  Findings  173 

11.  Of  the  five  hours  of  each  day  that  the  average  Horace  Mann 
boy  has  free  to  do  with  as  he  chooses,  roughly  three  hours 
are  devoted  to  science  toy  activities  of  various  kinds;  the 
other  two  to  athletic  games. 

12.  Activities  with  science  toys  come  at  irregular  intervals  and 
for  long  and  protracted  periods.  They  are  usually  accompa- 
nied by  great  enthusiasm  and  often  by  dreams  at  night  and 
by  day. 

13.  A  large  proportion  of  boys  who  own  science  outfits  carry  on 
correspondence  with  the  manufacturers  of  their  toys.  As 
many  as  2500  a  day  has  been  received  by  one  firm  during  the 
months  of  November,  December  and  January. 

14.  An  analysis  of  several  hundred  letters  shows  the  chief  interest 
(37%  of  the  boys)  in  these  toys  to  be  a  desire  to  "do  things, 
make  things  work,  make  experiments  and  invent."  The  inter- 
est that  ranks  next  (23%)  is  in  the  winning  of  a  prize  or  a 
diploma.  The  interest  that  ranks  third  (20%)  is  in  being  a 
great  engineer  or  inventor. 

15.  Most  of  the  letters  are  written  because  the  boys  wish  help. 
The  chief  source  of  difficulty  (54%  of  the  letters)  is  due  to 
lack  of  knowledge.  The  difficulty  next  in  importance  (25%) 
is  due  to  highly  impractical  schemes.  Lack  of  ability  or  tech- 
nique accounts  for  18%  of  the  difficulties. 

16.  As  shown  by  the  letters,  two-thirds  of  the  boys  succeed  in 
overcoming  their  difficulties.  One-third  fails.  Half  of  those 
that  succeed  do  so  because  of  continual  experimenting — trial 
and  error.  The  other  half  succeeds  through  help  or  hint  from 
parent,  teacher,  or  friend. 

17.  The  companies  do  practically  nothing  for  the  one-third  that 
fails. 

18.  The  chief  characteristic  about  a  boy  who  succeeds  in  over- 
coming a  difficulty  is  that  he  almost  always  finds  a  new  prob- 
lem arising  out  of  the  old  one. 

19.  The  analysis  of  the  letters  is  corroborated  by  the  minutes 
which  were  kept  of  the  activities  of  hundreds  of  boys  in  after- 
school  science. 


174  After-School  Material  in  Science 

20.  For  every  boy  who  follows  the  order  of  the  experiments  as 
found  in  the  manual,  there  are  seven  who  skip  around 
throughout  the  manual  performing  experiments  at  random. 
The  manuals  do  not  function  as  they  are  intended  to  by  the 
companies. 

21.  The  ''random'*  boys  are  superior  to  the  others  in  inventiveness 
and  originality  (as  measured  by  their  standing  in  the  Science 
Club). 

22.  Many  of  these  "random"  boys  develop  a  steadier  interest 
in  the  manuals  later  on;  that  is,  they  pay  more  and  more 
attention  to  larger  ideas  and  concepts  as  developed  by  the 
manual.  Guidance  and  control  at  these  critical  stages  is  of 
course  important  and  is  furnished  to  some  extent  by  the 
Club. 

23.  The  mechanical  toy  of  greatest  appeal  is  the  electrically  oper- 
ated derrick  that  moves  and  Hfts. 

24.  There  is  a  growing  tendency  among  manufacturers  to  aban- 
don the  type  of  toy  that  appeals  merely  to  the  two  elementary 
sensations  of  motion  and  color,  and  to  produce  a  toy  that  is 
"meaningful."  This  tendency  is  the  correlate  of  a  great 
demand  for  this  sort  of  toy,  that  is  world-wide. 

25.  The  German  science  toy  is  of  the  specific  type — not  an  out- 
fit. The  mainuals  allow  for  little  flexibility  or  originality. 
Boys  show  an  initial  interest  in  them,  but  the  interest  seldom 
lasts.    As  a  rule  the  German  toy  is  flimsy  and  frail. 

26.  A  set  of  curricular  criteria  are  proposed  for  judging  the 
value  of  extra-curricular  activities.  (See  tests  used  and  de- 
vised.) 

27.  Extra-curricular  activities  in  science  make  for  almost  as  good 
a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  environmental  phenomena  as 
do  curricular  activities. 

28.  Extra-curricular  activities  in  science  make  for  better  control 
of  the  physical  and  chemical  elements  in  our  environment. 

29.  Extra-curricular  activities  in  science  make  for  better  con- 
structive ability ;  that  is  ability  to  fashion  raw  materials  into 

30.  Extra-curricular  activities  in  science  encourage  and  stimulate 
activities  that  give  the  boy  first-hand  experiences  with  natu- 
usable  things. 


Summary  of  Important  Features  and  Findings  175 

ral  phenomena.  Their  activities  agree  closely  with  the  youth- 
ful activities  of  great  scientists,  and  they  contain  elements  in 
common  with  the  laboratory  procedure  of  great  scientists. 

31.  Extra-curricular  activities  in  science  represent  a  type  of  pur- 
poseful activity  which  encourages  originality  and  inventive- 
ness, and  habituates  boys  to  the  experimental  procedure. 

32.  Boys  who  participate  in  both  curricular  and  extra-curricular 
activities  excell  all  others  in  the  abilities  mentioned  in  27, 
28,  29,  30  and  31  above. 

33.  The  average  IQ  of  boys  who  join  the  Science  Club  is  always 
slightly  smaller  than  the  IQ  of  those  that  do  not  join  the  Club. 

34.  There  seems  to  be  very  little  correlation  between  IQ  and 
standing  in  the  club,  or  between  IQ  and  Stenquist  ability,  or 
between  IQ  and  score  in  the  "Practical"  test. 

35.  Clubs  and  societies  for  boys  of  the  ages  11,  12,  13  and  14 
take  advantage  of  an  instinct  that  is  very  dominant  during 
those  ages.  The  propaganda  of  the  manufacturers,  the  dif- 
ferent toy  institutes,  etc.,  utilize  this  instinct  essentially  for 
their  own  purposes. 

36.  Experiences  of  large  organizations  of  this  type  in  the  past 
show  the  need  of  three  things :  workable  materials,  a  definite 
program,  and  intelligent  leadership. 

37.  The  Science  Club  is  an  organization  which  may  serve  as  a 
medium  through  which  after-school  activities  in  science  may 
be  stimulated,  guided,  controlled,  and  developed.  The  organ- 
ization found  to  be  very  workable  by  the  writer  is  described ; 
including  a  discussion  of  types  of  clubs,  methods  of  organiza- 
tion, control  of  membership,  range  of  activities  and  programs 
and  the  technique  of  leadership. 

38.  The  Science  Play  Shop  offers  the  proper  physical  facilities 
for  the  efficient  carrying-on  of  after-school  activities  in  school, 

39.  The  Science  Play  Shop  in  the  home  is  described  and  dis- 
cussed from  the  point  of  view  of  offering  a  way  out  for  par- 
ents in  crowded  apartment  houses. 

40.  Another  application  of  some  of  the  findings  of  this  study 
(not  yet  included)  is  a  series  of  exercises  organized  into  a 
course  of  study  and  correlating  principles  of  science  with 
industrial  arts  work. 


VITA 

The  author  of  this  dissertation  was  born  near  Bielo- 
stok,  Russia,  October  20,  1895.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  at  the  age  of  seven  and  entered  the  New  York 
City  Elementary  Schools,  from  which  he  was  graduated 
in  1909.  In  1912  he  completed  the  course  in  the  prepara- 
tory school  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and 
in  1916  received  from  that  institution  the  B.S.  degree, 
cum  laude,  and  initiation  into  Phi  Beta  Kappa.  In 
1917  he  was  granted  the  M.A.  degree  from  Columbia 
University. 

The  author's  professional  experience  consists  of  the 
following:  Teacher  of  English  to  Foreigners  in  the  New 
York  City  Public  Schools,  1914-1918;  Teacher  and 
Principal  of  a  Sunday  School,  1912-1921 ;  Teacher  of 
Physics  in  the  Stuyvesant  High  School,  New  York 
City,  1916-1917;  Assistant  in  Physical  Science,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  1917-1919;  Teacher  of 
Science,  Speyer  Junior  High  School,  1916-1918;  Teacher 
of  Science,  Horace  Mann  School,  1918-1921 ;  Director 
of  Boys'  Club  Work,  Recreation  Rooms  and  Settlement, 
1918-1921 ;  Camp  Director  and  Supervisor,  summers  of 
1917,  1918,  1919;  Advisor  in  Science,  Play  School  of 
the  Bureau  of  Educational  Experiments,  New  York 
City,  1919-1921;  Editor  of  Popular  Science  Monthly 
Science  Teachers'  Service  Sheets,  1920-1921;  War  In- 
structor of  Physics,  Columbia  University  S.  A.  T.  C, 
1919;  Instructor  of  Physical  Science,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  1920-1921. 


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